Title: Learning
Course: Question Banks

Q: How do students perform that reach out for help compared with those that do not reach out for help?
- Students perform about the same when they reach out for help (Incorrect. Researchers have found that students that reach out for help do better in their courses than students who do not ask for help.)
- Students perform worse when they reach out for help (Incorrect. Researchers have found that students that reach out for help do better in their courses than students who do not ask for help.)
- Students perform better when they reach out for help (Correct. Researchers have found that students that reach out for help do better in their courses than students who do not ask for help.)
A: Students perform better when they reach out for help

Q: Research has shown that in general students prefer reaching out where?
- In the classroom (Incorrect. Researchers have found that students are more likely to reach out for help in an online environment because they perceive it as lower risk than if they had to reach out for help in person.)
- No preference between the two (Incorrect. Researchers have found that students are more likely to reach out for help in an online environment because they perceive it as lower risk than if they had to reach out for help in person.)
- Online through email or messages (Correct. Researchers have found that students are more likely to reach out for help in an online environment because they perceive it as lower risk than if they had to reach out for help in person.)
A: Online through email or messages

Q: Based on changes in the weather, bears typically hibernate for half the year. This is an example of an innate behavior, known as a
- condition. (Incorrect. The term condition doesn’t really apply here.)
- reflex. (Incorrect. A reflex is a much simpler reaction, such as an infant suckling (the rooting reflex) to obtain nutrition.)
- reaction (Incorrect. An instinct might look like a reaction, but the line of causality from action to reaction involved in an instinct may not be readily apparent.)
- instinct. (Correct. The combination of factors, including the weather, that signal the bear to hibernate is an example of an instinct, which requires more complexity than a simple motor or neural reflex.)
A: instinct.

Q: Acquiring knowledge and skills through experience is called ________.
- conditioning (Incorrect. This is only one type of learning. This answer is too specific.)
- an instinct (Incorrect. Instincts are innate behaviors triggered by grander events.)
- observational learning (Incorrect. This answer is too specific; choose an option that encompasses more forms of attaining knowledge and skills.)
- learning (Correct. When we acquire knowledge and skills through experience--of many varieties--we learn.)
A: learning

Q: When a person or animal makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together, they are exemplifying ________ learning.
- instinctive (Incorrect. Instincts are not learned, but innate.)
- reflexive (Incorrect. Reflexes are not learned, but are very basic innate functions.)
- modeling (Incorrect. While modeling is a form of learning, it involves observation then action.)
- associative (Correct. Classical conditioning connects a stimulus and a response, and operant conditioning connects an action with a consequence.)
A: associative

Q: Which of the following is an example of a reflex?
- becoming defensive if you feel like someone is upset with you (Incorrect. This may seem like a natural reaction, but it’s not involuntary and innate)
- becoming bored during a movie (Incorrect. If this happened during all movies, it might be a pattern of behavior for the individual, but it’s not innate. This person just gets bored easily during movies.)
- salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs (Incorrect. This would be triggered by larger environmental factors, and is more complex than a reflex.)
- a newborn baby knowing how to nurse (Correct. This is an innate motor function that facilitates survival.)
A: a newborn baby knowing how to nurse

Q: Mary Claire watches her father bake bread every Sunday afternoon. Eventually, she starts to join him in the kitchen and he shows her the ropes of how it’s done. After years of doing this together, Mary Claire decides she wants to open a bakery. This exemplifies
- conditioning. (Incorrect. Mary Claire observes and reproduces actions she sees; this goes beyond conditioning.)
- reflexes. (Incorrect. Reflexes are innate; this requires the acquisition of a skill.)
- instincts. (Incorrect. Instincts are innate reactions to events in the greater environment.)
- learning. (Correct. Mary Claire is learning through observation and by doing.)
A: learning.

Q: Sea turtles moving toward the ocean immediately after birth, and joeys moving to the mother’s pouch immediately after birth are examples of ________.
- learning (Incorrect. These patterns of behavior are innate, and no learning is required.)
- reflexes (Incorrect. While also innate, these examples are more complex than reflexes.)
- conditioning (Incorrect. These patterns of behavior are innate, with no learning required.)
- instincts (Correct. These responses to environmental stimuli are innate.)
A: instincts

Q: Which is an example of classical conditioning?
- blindfolding someone and timing him to see how long he takes to find a button hidden in a room (Incorrect. this tests trial and error learning.)
- telling students if they fill up a jar with tokens for good behavior, then they will get a pizza party at the end of the year. (Incorrect. This is an example of a token economy, an operant conditioning strategy.)
- watching your grandmother make her favorite recipe multiple times, as you help her out, and later discovering you can make the recipe by yourself. (Incorrect. This would indicate latent learning has taken place, as you reproduce the whole recipe unaided.)
- being afraid of thunder and lightning because the last two times you were in a thunderstorm, there were also tornadoes. (Correct. This pairs thunderstorms with tornadoes, making thunder and lightning a conditioned stimulus for fear.)
A: being afraid of thunder and lightning because the last two times you were in a thunderstorm, there were also tornadoes.

Q: What was the most important takeaway from Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with dogs?
- Food is the greatest motivator. (Incorrect. Pavlov paired stimuli with responses, not accounting for cognitive processes or behavioral consequences.)
- One can learn new behaviors by observing others. (Incorrect. This describes observational learning.)
- Classical conditioning involves pairing a behavior and a consequence (reinforcements and punishments). (Incorrect. This describes operant conditioning.)
- Learning can occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
A: Learning can occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Q: In classical conditioning, organisms learn to
- anticipate consequences for behaviors. (Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli with responses.)
- associate rewards or punishments with behavior. (Incorrect. Rewards and punishments for behaviors are associated with operant conditioning.)
- associate events that happen together on different schedules. (Incorrect. The term schedules indicates operant conditioning is being used.)
- associate events that repeatedly happen together. (Correct. This describes the process of pairing stimuli with responses in classical conditioning.)
A: associate events that repeatedly happen together.

Q: Ivan Pavlov
- established the principles of operant conditioning through experiments with pigeons. (Incorrect. B.F. Skinner is known for his experiments with pigeons and his “Skinner box” is associated with operant conditioning.)
- is famous for first demonstrating the power of observational learning. (Incorrect. Observational learning can be attributed to Bandura and his Bobo doll experiment.)
- is famous for for demonstrating latent learning with rats learning to run a maze. (Incorrect. Tolman’s maze studies with rats illustrated latent learning as rats who had not been reinforced with food every trial quickly caught up to the rats who had been reinforced every trial.)
- established the principles of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. (Correct. Pavlov taught the dogs in his experiments to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned response.)
A: established the principles of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.

Q: In Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs, the unconditioned response is ________ and the conditioned response is ________.
- the bell; salivation (Incorrect. The bell is a conditioned stimulus, and salivation is a response.)
- food; salivation (Incorrect. Food is an unconditioned stimulus, and salivation is a response.)
- salivation; food (Incorrect. Salivation is an unconditioned response, but the conditioned response is salivating after the bell without the food.)
- salivation; salivation (Correct. In Pavlov’s experiment, he conditioned the dogs to pair a previously neutral stimulus (a bell) with the presentation of food (the unconditioned stimulus) to make it a conditioned stimulus. In both cases, the response desired was salivation. With the food, it happened naturally, and once conditioned, salivation occurred following the bell.)
A: salivation; salivation

Q: Darkness will naturally cause your pupils to dilate, since they are opening up to let it more light from the surroundings. Light causes the pupil to contract. Knowing this, how could you design a classical conditioning experiment forcing the pupils to dilate?
- Ring a bell directly after turning the lights off, for at least 15 times. Then ring the bell. (Incorrect. If the bell is rung after the lights are turned off, the bell will not be paired with dilation of the pupils because the light turning off will already have signaled the pupils to dilate; this is not the proper order to establish a stimulus-response pairing.)
- Turn the lights off twenty times while a bell is rung, then turn the lights off without the bell. (Incorrect. The bell must be rung before the lights are turned off in order to make it a conditioned, anticipatory stimulus for the response of the pupils dilating.)
- Turn the lights off at least 15 times before ringing a bell, then turn the lights off without the bell. (Incorrect. Order is important. The stimulus you are trying to pair with a response must be presented before the unconditioned stimulus for it to become a useful pairing with the desired response.)
- Ring a bell directly before turning the lights off, twenty times in a row. Then ring the bell. (Correct. This condition properly pairs the ringing of the bell (a neutral stimulus) with turning the lights off (an unconditioned stimulus), repeatedly. The bell will become a signal (conditioned stimulus) that the lights will turn off and the pupils will dilate (conditioned response).)
A: Ring a bell directly before turning the lights off, twenty times in a row. Then ring the bell.

Q: When Justin’s dog hears the sound of a car door slam outside, she excitedly runs to the door and barks. This is an example of
- operant conditioning. (Incorrect. Operant conditioning associates a behavior with a consequence. If Justin’s dog learned that sitting would earn her a treat, this might be an example of operant conditioning.)
- observational learning. (Incorrect. If Justin had, for example, taught his dog to “shake,” by extending his hand and encouraging his dog to do the same after watching him do so, this might be an example of observational learning.)
- latent learning (Incorrect. If Justin took his dog on frequent walks of the neighborhood, and one day she got out of the house, but found her way home, this might be an example of latent learning- the dog learned the route home without being specifically taught.)
- classical conditioning. (Correct. Justin’s dog has learned to associate the sound of a car door slamming with the arrival of her friend, Justin.)
A: classical conditioning.

Q: When Rosalie falls asleep at a park next to an elementary school, the ringing bell wakes her up. She immediately jumps to her feet and starts to pack up her bag because she has been conditioned to think the ringing bell signifies the end of class and the need to go somewhere else. When Rosalie was little, before ever attending school, the sound of a bell was a
- unconditioned stimulus. (Incorrect. The ringing of a bell could only be an unconditioned stimulus for waking up for Rosalie before she started school, as the sound of the bell would awake a sleeping person, but not naturally trigger any other activities.)
- conditioned stimulus. (Incorrect. Before Rosalie started school, the bell was a neutral stimulus. It may have awoken her, but it would not have triggered any school preparation behaviors.)
- neutral response (Incorrect: Although it is neutral, the bell is a stimulus, not a response. Rosalie’s action’s following the bell would constitute her response.)
- neutral stimulus. (Correct. Before Rosalie started school, a bell was not associated with any school-related tasks.)
A: neutral stimulus.

Q: Which component of a classically conditioned behavior automatically elicits a reaction? For example, dimming the lights will cause the eyes to dilate.
- neutral stimulus. (Incorrect. By definition, a neutral stimulus is one that is not associated with a specific response.)
- conditioned stimulus. (Incorrect. It takes learning to pair a neutral stimulus to a response in order to make a neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus; it does not automatically elicit a reaction.)
- reactional stimulus. (Incorrect. This is not in the terminology of classical conditioning. An unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits an unconditioned response.)
- unconditioned stimulus. (Correct. An unconditioned stimulus is one that will automatically elicit a response.)
A: unconditioned stimulus.

Q: Susan is undergoing chemotherapy, which makes her feel nauseous. Now she feels nauseous the moment she walks into the doctor’s office. What is the unconditioned response in this situation?
- chemotherapy (Incorrect. Chemotherapy is an unconditioned stimulus for nausea, not a response.)
- the doctor’s office (Incorrect. Susan learns to associate a nauseous response with the doctor’s office, which is a learned stimulus.)
- dread (Incorrect. While this may also be a feeling Susan experiences, it is not within the scope of the question.)
- nausea (Correct. Nausea naturally occurs as a side effect of Susan’s chemotherapy.)
A: nausea

Q: Sven eats popcorn every time he goes to the movies. He goes to a new theatre with no concessions and finds that his mouth is watering for popcorn the entire time. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?
- wanting popcorn (Incorrect. Sven’s desire for popcorn is conscious. Once he knows he can’t get popcorn at this particular movie theater, his conscious desire for popcorn will likely dissipate as he becomes absorbed in the movie, even while his body responds to the movie with a salivation response.)
- eating popcorn (Incorrect. Eating the popcorn is the unconditioned stimulus, which cause Sven’s mouth to water.)
- the concession stand (Incorrect. This answer is close, because the concession stand is where Sven usually gets his popcorn, but because Sven’s mouth waters throughout the movie, this indicates the movie itself is the conditioned stimulus.)
- watching a movie (Correct. Sven’s mouth waters throughout the movie, because he has learned to associate watching a movie with eating popcorn and his body responds by preparing to eat the nonexistent popcorn.)
A: watching a movie

Q: When a previously learned behavior disappears because the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, we call it ________.
- classical conditioning (That's incorrect. Classical conditioning is the original learning of an association between a CS and a US. Here the classically conditioned association is being broken.)
- spontaneous recovery (That's incorrect. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response that has been extinguished. This question describes the extinction process.)
- generalization (That’s incorrect. Generalization occurs when the learner responds to stimuli similar to, but different from, the conditioned stimulus.)
- extinction (Correct! Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus, like a tone, is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus, like food. The conditioned response, salivation, diminishes and eventually disappears.)
A: extinction

Q: 3-year-old Lacy always gets her favorite juice in her Scooby-Doo cup, so she drinks readily. But now the Scooby-Doo cup is in the dishwasher, so mom puts her juice in the Dora the Explorer cup that is identical to the Scooby-Doo cup except for the decorations. Lacy refuses to drink because she ________.
- generalizes from the Scooby-Doo cup to the Dora the Explorer cup (That's incorrect. When we generalize, we produce the same response for two stimuli. In this example, Lacy produces different responses to two different stimuli.)
- spontaneously recovers her Scooby-Doo reaction when she sees Dora the Explorer (That's incorrect. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a response following its extinction. In this example, the drinking response was never extinguished, so it cannot be recovered.)
- extinguishes her association between the juice and the Scooby-Doo cup (That’s incorrect. If Lacy no longer associated the Scooby-Doo cup with her favorite juice, it is unlikely she would have a negative reaction to drinking from the Dora the Explorer cup, as the two cups would be the same in her view.)
- discriminates between the Scooby-Doo cup and the Dora the Explorer cup (Correct! Lacy associates the good taste of juice with the Scooby-Doo cup, but not the Dora the Explorer cup, so she responds differently to the two cups.)
A: discriminates between the Scooby-Doo cup and the Dora the Explorer cup

Q: A light and a shock are associated so the light now produces a fear response without presentation of the shock. If a new light that is similar to, but not identical to the original light produces the fear response, we have an example of ________.
- discrimination (That's incorrect. When a new stimulus is similar to an existing CS but it does not produce the CR, then the individual has discriminated between the two stimuli--discrimination.)
- spontaneous recovery. (That's incorrect. When a new stimulus is similar to an existing CS but it does not produce the CR, then the individual has discriminated between the two stimuli--discrimination.)
- extinction (That’s incorrect. If extinction has occured, the original CS will no longer produce the CR.)
- generalization (Correct! When a new stimulus is similar to an existing CS and produces the CR, we call this generalization.)
A: generalization

Q: In the study with Little Albert, he was conditioned to fear a rabbit because it was paired with a frightening loud sound. In this example, what was the unconditioned stimulus?
- the rabbit (Incorrect. The rabbit began as a neutral stimulus and had to be paired with the frightening sound in order to become the conditioned stimulus for fear.)
- fear (Incorrect. Fear was the unconditioned response to the frightening noise, the unconditioned stimulus.)
- a bright light (Incorrect. An unpleasantly bright light could have been used instead of the frightening loud sound as an unconditioned stimulus for Little Albert to respond by averting/ covering his eyes, but would have been an unsuccessful stimulus to pair with another object (the rabbit) the experimenters wanted him to see and fear.)
- the loud sound (Correct. The loud sound was inherently unpleasant and evoked a fear response without conditioning.)
A: the loud sound

Q: In order for ________ to occur, it is best if the interval between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is small, sometimes just a matter of seconds.
- extinction (Incorrect. If the experimenter wants to extinguish a conditioned response, they might start by extending the time between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus until they are sufficiently separated as to become unassociated with one another, and be treated as two separate events.)
- stimulation (Incorrect. Stimulation occurs each time a stimulus is presented, whether neutral, unconditioned, or conditioned. This falls short of explaining how unconditioned stimuli become paired with conditioned stimuli to produce conditioned responses.)
- discrimination (Incorrect. For discrimination, we are looking for the ability of the learner to distinguish between two similar stimuli, while this question describes the process of associating stimuli to one another.)
- acquisition (Correct. Acquisition is best achieved if the conditioned stimulus can be well-associated with the unconditioned stimulus. If too much time passes between the presentation of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, it is less likely it will become associated with the US and become a CS.)
A: acquisition

Q: Darnell was the subject for his in-class demonstration on classical conditioning. His teacher read through a list of random words, but each time she said the word, “pizza,” she squirted him in the face with a water bottle, which caused him to flinch. When talking about pizza later outside of class, he didn’t flinch, but then two days later, his friend from class said, “Hey Darnell, pizza!” and he flinched with fear. This is an example of ________.
- classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning was the initial process by which Darnell learned the association between the word “pizza” and being squirted in the face, but that learning has extinguished, as Darnell is able to talk about pizza later without flinching.)
- neutral stimulus (Incorrect. The neutral stimulus in the original experiment was the word “pizza,” which later became the conditioned stimulus. The nature of Darnell’s reaction, not the stimulus, is the subject of this example.)
- an experimental confederate (Incorrect. A confederate is someone who participates in an experiment, but knows some crucial information the other participants do not know. It is possible that Darnell’s friend was a confederate, assigned by the teacher to test whether the word “pizza” would produce a reaction two later, but Darnell’s reaction is the subject of concern.)
- spontaneous recovery (Correct. After the response to the word “pizza” had been extinguished, Darnell’s flinch reaction to hearing it two days later is an example of spontaneous recovery.)
A: spontaneous recovery

Q: When Anna’s old roommate would go to the kitchen first thing in the morning, she would always make coffee. Anna would stay in bed a few extra minutes and grab a cup of coffee as she left for class. Now Anna hears her new roommate go to the kitchen, so she stays in bed a few extra minutes. As she leaves for class, she is surprised that there is no coffee. Anna’s mistaken assumption that her roommate would make coffee is based on ________.
- discrimination (That's incorrect. Discrimination occurs when an individual behaves differently for different stimuli. Anna behaved the same way for both roommates.)
- extinction (That's incorrect. Extinction occurs when a previously learned CS-CR relationship goes away. Anna may be about to extinguish her sleeping in behavior, but the key in this example is her failure to distinguish between roommates.)
- spontaneous recovery (That’s incorrect. Anna was conditioned to associate her old roommate going to the kitchen in the morning with that roommate making coffee. Now, with a new roommate, Anna has generalized the activity of going to the kitchen with making coffee to the new roommate’s neutral behavior. It seems as though Anna’s conditioning was never lost, but rather, extended to a new set of circumstances (new roommate). It cannot spontaneously recover if never extinguished.)
- generalization (Correct! Generalization occurs when a response learned for one stimulus occurs for a similar but distinguishable stimulus. Here Anna responded the same way to two different roommates, so she generalized from the first roommate to the second.)
A: generalization

Q: Sierra and her family are on vacation at the beach. They eat lasagna for dinner and then head out to the waves. Sierra tries boogie boarding and ends up swallowing a mouthful of salt water, which makes her sick to her stomach. The next time someone offers her lasagna, the thought of it makes Sierra feel sick. This is an example of a/an ________.
- taste response (Incorrect. The word “taste” is correct, but think about what kind of response it is-- an aversive reaction to the associated food.)
- unconditioned response (Incorrect. Reacting with illness to swallowing salt water on its own may be an unconditioned response, but here, it is paired with the dinner Sierra ate before swallowing salt water (lasagna).)
- habituation (Incorrect. Habituation implies a person has grown so accustomed to a given stimulus, he/she no longer responds to that stimulus. In this example, Sierra cannot even think of lasagna without feeling ill.)
- taste aversion (Correct. Sierra has learned to associate lasagna with sickness, and has therefore developed a taste aversion.)
A: taste aversion

Q: Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning?
- when a rabbit chases after another rabbit (Incorrect. This doesn’t describe a learning process; it is likely just a form of play.)
- when a rabbit learns to jump at the sound of the door opening (Incorrect. This is an example of classical conditioning.)
- when a rabbit learns to jump after a red light flashes (Incorrect. This is an example of classical conditioning.)
- when a rabbit goes to the bathroom in the litter box, she gets a piece of carrot (Correct. The rabbit is reinforced for using the litter box (a behavior), which is associated with a consequence (the positive reinforcement of the carrot).)
A: when a rabbit goes to the bathroom in the litter box, she gets a piece of carrot

Q: Gillian’s kids struggle to get out the door in the morning for school, so she creates a sticker chart where they can put on a sticker each time they are ready to go before 7 a.m. Once they fill they chart, they’ll get a new bunk bed. This is an example of ________.
- classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning forms an association between a stimulus and a response.)
- modeling (Incorrect. Modeling would look more like Gillian showing her children how to get ready in the morning (which she has likely done to no avail.))
- shaping conditioning (Incorrect. Shaping can be used in operant conditioning, but is not a separate type of conditioning. Shaping helps by rewarding activities that come closer and closer to the desired behavior.)
- operant conditioning (Correct. Operant conditioning gives the children a reward for a desired behavior. In this example, Gillian uses a token economy, where her children earn stickers to build up to a greater reward.)
A: operant conditioning

Q: ________ is well known for his research on animals and pigeons. He even created an operant conditioning chamber designed to reward animals for specific behaviors.
- Edward Thorndike (Incorrect. This answer is close. Skinner built his experimental designs on Thorndike’s law of effect, a foundation for operant conditioning principles.)
- Ivan Pavlov (Incorrect. When thinking of Pavlov, think of salivating dogs, and classical conditioning.)
- Edward C. Tolman (Incorrect. Tolman’s work with rats running mazes, with reinforcement for some rats throughout the experiment, then some later on, showed latent learning, as the rats reinforced later caught up to the fully reinforced rats more quickly than if they’d learned nothing in the maze without reinforcement.)
- B.F. Skinner (Correct. An easy way to remember Skinner’s connection to operant conditioning is to remember this chamber, often called the “Skinner box.”)
A: B.F. Skinner

Q: According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely
- to be extinguished. (Incorrect. Extinction, or a behavior being extinguished, is a term more closely associated with classical conditioning, and involves a decrease in pairing of stimuli, resulting in fewer responses.)
- to be discouraged. (Incorrect. Unless someone is trying to dissuade a pleasurable, yet undesirable behavior (smoking, for example), it is unlikely to be discouraged--but this steps beyond the law of effect into operant conditioning. The law of effect simply states if a behavior gives an organism satisfying consequences, it is more likely to be repeated.)
- to be rewarded. (Incorrect. When discussing rewards, operant conditioning, which is based on the law of effect, is the topic of discussion. The law of effect, however, is simply concerned with whether a behavior is more or less likely to be repeated based on how satisfying that behavior is. It need not be rewarded, but might be if using operant conditioning.)
- to be repeated. (Correct. Put very simply, if a behavior gives us pleasure, we are more likely to repeat that behavior.)
A: to be repeated.

Q: Which is an example of operant conditioning?
- determining how long it takes someone to learn how to fish if he is only allowed to watch other people fishing (Incorrect. This would measure someone’s observational learning.)
- getting awakened with a glass of water each day for a week (There is too little information in this response to make a determination. If the presentation of the water is preceded by an unpleasant sound, then it may be an example of classical conditioning. If the water is thrown in the person’s face each morning to wake them in order to encourage waking up on time, it might be a use of operant conditioning….but as is, the information is insufficient.)
- a child being taught not to cross the street when the crossing guard is not present by pairing the sound of a car horn with the guard’s absence (This is an example of classical conditioning, as the child learns to associate the car horn (stimulus) with not crossing the street (response), and the crossing guard’s presence (stimulus) with crossing the street (response).)
- giving yourself one piece of candy after you complete one math problem (Correct. Rewarding yourself with candy is providing yourself a positive reinforcer for a desired behavior (completing a math problem), which increases the likelihood that you’ll repeat the behavior.)
A: giving yourself one piece of candy after you complete one math problem

Q: Doing something and then being influenced by what happens as a consequence of the thing you did is the basic idea behind ________.
- classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning associates stimuli and responses rather than behaviors and consequences.)
- associative learning (Incorrect. This is too broad. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are types of associative learning.)
- observational learning (Incorrect. Look for a type of associative learning here, involving an association between behaviors and consequences.)
- operant conditioning (Correct. Operant conditioning associates behaviors with consequences.)
A: operant conditioning

Q: Positive Reinforcement refers to a situation where ________.
- a behavior is decreased because something undesirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior (That’s incorrect. Punishment leads to a decrease in behavior and “negative” means that something has been removed. Choose a different option that reflects the meanings of Positive and Reinforcement.)
- a behavior increased, regardless of whether something was gained or lost (That’s incorrect. You are right that “reinforcement” means that a behavior increased, but you have ignored the meaning of “positive.” Choose a different option that reflects the meanings of both Positive and Reinforcement.)
- A behavior is increased because something undesirable was added through engaging in the behavior (That’s incorrect. “Reinforcement” means an increase, but if something undesirable (punishment) is added (positive), this is a positive punishment, and not a positive reinforcement. A punishment seeks to decrease a behavior.)
- a behavior is increased because something desirable was gained through engaging in the behavior (That’s correct. Reinforcement means that a behavior has increased, and “positive” means that the consequences add something that was not present before.)
A: a behavior is increased because something desirable was gained through engaging in the behavior

Q: Reinforcement differs from punishment in that ________.
- reinforcement involves desirable outcomes and punishment involves undesirable outcomes (That’s incorrect. Reinforcement and punishment refer to the likelihood that the behavior that produced them will increase or decrease. Both reinforcement and punishment can involve either desirable or undesirable outcomes. Choose a different option that fits the distinction between these two concepts more accurately..)
- reinforcement is good and punishment is bad (That’s incorrect. “Good” and “bad” are hard to define, but, whatever they mean, that is not the distinction between reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement and punishment refer to the likelihood that the behavior that produced them will increase or decrease. Both could lead to outcomes people might view as good or bad. Choose a different option that fits the distinction between these two concepts more accurately.)
- reinforcement is always positive and punishment is always negative. (That’s incorrect. Reinforcement and punishment refer to the likelihood that a given behavior will increase or decrease. The terms positive and negative can apply to both concepts, as positive means something is added, and negative means something is taken away, whether pleasant or adverse, in both scenarios.)
- reinforcement is any outcome that leads to an increase in a behavior and punishment is an outcome that leads to a decrease in a behavior (That’s correct. These terms are used to describe outcomes that lead to either an increase (reinforcement) or a decrease (punishment) in some behavior.)
A: reinforcement is any outcome that leads to an increase in a behavior and punishment is an outcome that leads to a decrease in a behavior

Q: Negative punishment refers to a situation where ________.
- a behavior is decreased because something desirable was gained through engaging in the behavior (That’s incorrect. You are right that “punishment” means that a behavior has decreased, but “negative” means that something has been removed, not gained. Choose a different option that reflects the meanings of both Negative and Punishment.)
- a behavior increased because something undesirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior (That's incorrect. You are right that “negative” means that something has been removed, but “punishment” means that a behavior decreases, not increases. Choose a different option that reflects the meanings of both Negative and Punishment.)
- a behavior is increased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior (That’s incorrect. This is an example of a negative reinforcement. You are correct that “negative” means taking something away, but if a behavior is increased, it is a reinforcer, not a punisher.)
- a behavior decreased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior (That's correct. “Punishment” means that a behavior decreases due to its consequences and “negative” means that something has been taken away. Negative punishment occurs when something desirable is taken away, leading to a decrease in the behavior that led to the loss of the desirable thing or situation.)
A: a behavior decreased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior

Q: A rat is placed in an environment where the floor gives the rat small electric shocks. The only way to get rid of the shocks is to press a lever in the corner of the box. The rat quickly learns to press the lever. This is an example of
- negative punishment (Incorrect. This is negative, because the rat is trying to remove an aversive stimulus (the shock), but it is not punishment because the researcher’s goal is to get the rat to increase lever-pressing behavior.)
- positive reinforcement (Incorrect. This is reinforcement, because the goal is to increase the rat’s lever-pressing behavior. However, it is not positive because when the rat presses the lever, it removes an unpleasant stimulus (the shock), rather than adding a rewarding stimulus (such as food).)
- positive punishment (Incorrect. This is neither positive nor punishment, because nothing aversive is added (positive) to decrease the likelihood of behavior (punishment). Instead, an aversive stimulus is taken away (negative), to increase the likelihood of behavior (reinforcement).)
- negative reinforcement (Correct. This is negative, because the rat is removing the aversive stimulus (the shock), and it is a reinforcement, because the lever-pressing behavior is increased.)
A: negative reinforcement

Q: Which is an example of negative reinforcement?
- making children pay $1 each time they read a book (Incorrect. This is an example of negative punishment. Taking away something valuable (the dollar) from a child each time they read a book, will decrease their likelihood (punishing) of reading books or of reporting their reading.)
- getting grounded and having to stay home for staying out too late (Incorrect. Adding (positive) an aversive consequence (grounding) to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (staying out late), is an example of positive punishment.)
- getting a speeding ticket for exceeding the speed limit (Incorrect. This is an example of a positive punishment. Getting a speeding ticket (adding something undesirable) is meant to decrease speeding behavior (a punishment).)
- buckling your seatbelt to remove the “beep, beep, beep” sound in your car (Correct. The beeping sound in your car is an unpleasant stimulus, so buckling your seatbelt to remove the unpleasant sound (negative) increases the likelihood you’ll buckle your seatbelt (reinforcement).)
A: buckling your seatbelt to remove the “beep, beep, beep” sound in your car

Q: Which is an example of a positive reinforcer?
- having to stay in your room until it’s clean (Incorrect. Being told to stay in one’s room (confinement) is a punishment, intended to increase room cleaning performance (reinforcement).)
- using an umbrella to stop the rain on your head (Incorrect. Stopping an unpleasant sensation (rain hitting your head), is nice, and might increase umbrella usage, so it might be considered a negative reinforcer, but it doesn’t fit the model as well as other examples, because it just illustrates the umbrella’s function.)
- getting an extra day off school at the end of the year for perfect attendance (Incorrect. Taking away a day of school (negative) as a reward for perfect attendance (reinforcing attendance), is a negative reinforcer.)
- being told “nice work!” after completing your homework (Correct. A compliment given (positive) increases the likelihood of the behavior (reinforcing).)
A: being told “nice work!” after completing your homework

Q: Rewarding successive approximations towards a target behavior is known as
- learning. (Incorrect. Learning is too broad a term for this specific phenomenon.)
- reinforcement. (Incorrect. Reinforcement is involved in this process, but the term reinforcement is too broad for this specific method of reinforcing closer and closer approximations toward the target behavior.)
- classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli and responses.)
- shaping. (Correct. Shaping rewards successive approximations of the target behavior.)
A: shaping.

Q: Jackie wants her dog to bring her the mail each day after it’s dropped in through the mail slot. Instead of trying teach her dog, Dodger, all at once, she begins by giving him treats each time he goes to the mail slot. This is an example of
- primary reinforcement. (Incorrect. A primary reinforcer is something that satisfies a basic need, such as shelter, food, etc. This is not an example of a primary reinforcer, as fetching the mail is not instrumental to meeting Dodger’s needs.)
- acquisition. (Incorrect. Jackie is trying to reach acquisition, where Dodger eventually possesses the end skill of bringing her mail to her, but he has not yet reached this state.)
- secondary reinforcement. (Incorrect. While getting the mail is not essential to Dodger’s needs, it also does not serve as a secondary reinforcer to meeting his needs. Jackie will still feed her dog even if he fails to learn the task of fetching the mail.)
- shaping. (Correct. Jackie knows that bringing her mail is a complex pattern for Dodger to follow, so she must reward steps toward the end goal so Dodger does not give up on the task altogether.)
A: shaping.

Q: Jarren wants his dog to play dead when he says “bang, bang!” so he begins by giving him a treat each time that he crouches down after giving the command. Eventually he’ll get him to roll over and then to lay on his back with his legs outstretched. This is an example of
- primary reinforcement. (Incorrect. Jarren is not denying his dog food or shelter based on its his ability to learn this skill. A primary reinforcer is that which is inherently satisfying to the animal, so the treat is a primary reinforcer, but how Jarren is teaching his dog is stringing together attainable behaviors to achieve a more complex sequence of behaviors. This option falls short of a full explanation.)
- acquisition. (Incorrect. Acquisition is a term associated with classical conditioning, whereas Jarren is practicing a form of operant conditioning to teach his dog.)
- positive reinforcement (Incorrect. This answer is only partially correct, as Jarren is adding a desired reward (a treat) to increase the likelihood of a behavior (at first, crouching). This answer fails to provide what comes next in the learning process to take the dog from crouching to “playing dead” on command, through reinforcement.)
- shaping. (Correct. Jarren is rewarding his dog for behaviors that will eventually lead to his successful “playing dead,” by rewarding successive approximations.)
A: shaping.

Q: Sean wants to teach his dog to turn the light on. What would be the best way to train his dog, utilizing the idea of shaping? What might he do that using the concept of shaping?
- reward his dog when she touches the lightswitch, when she pushes it, when she looks at it, and when she turns it on by command (Incorrect. This is not the most logical sequence for shaping. The dog may never touch the lightswitch in the normal course of a day, so it would be a difficult first step to reinforce toward having her turn on the lights by command.)
- reward his dog when she turns it on by command, when she touches it, when she looks at it, and when she pushes it. (Incorrect. The dog could not start by turning the lights on by command, as she has not learned the building blocks of what is involved in the whole process of turning on the light.)
- reward his dog when she touches the lightswitch, when she looks at it, when she turns it on by command, and when she pushes it. (Incorrect. This sequence is not quite right, because it does not follow the most logical order of a dog’s natural behavior. Attention, tactile involvement, intensified tactile involvement, then interaction by command is the most logical sequence.)
- reward his dog when the dog looks at the light switch, when she touches the lightswitch, when she pushes it, and when she turns it on by command (Correct. This is the most logical sequence for shaping: starting with looking, then touching, then pushing, then turning it on by command. This form of shaping would reward successive approximations, in an order that makes sense to the dog.)
A: reward his dog when the dog looks at the light switch, when she touches the lightswitch, when she pushes it, and when she turns it on by command

Q: Which type of reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned?
- operant (Incorrect. Operant conditioning works best if reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities, but operant conditioning involves more than just reinforcers.)
- secondary (Incorrect. Secondary reinforcers are best utilized when tied to primary reinforcers, but by themselves do not have innate reinforcing qualities.)
- instinctive (Incorrect. Primary reinforcers are innate, but not necessarily instinctive, as instincts are limited patterns of unlearned behavior. Primary reinforcers can be used to incentivize other desired behaviors.)
- primary (Correct. Primary reinforcers satisfy basic needs: food, shelter, sex, sleep, etc.)
A: primary

Q: Shelter, sex, and touch are examples of
- secondary reinforcers. (Incorrect. None of these have to be paired with another reinforcer to be effective at reinforcing a behavior.)
- positive reinforcers. (Incorrect. While each of these may be used for positive reinforcement, they may also be used for negative reinforcement. They are inherently reinforcing.)
- operant reinforcers. (Incorrect. Used in operant conditioning, these are the most effective kind of reinforcer; however, they are not the only kind of reinforcer used in operant conditioning.)
- primary reinforcers. (Correct. Each of these are drives that are inherently reinforcing.)
A: primary reinforcers.

Q: Stickers on a sticker chart are an example of which type of reinforcer?
- operant (Incorrect. Reinforcers are used in operant conditioning, but this term is too broad.)
- primary (Incorrect. Primary reinforcers are innately reinforcing, whereas stickers are not.)
- classical (Incorrect. Reinforcement is associated with operant conditioning, not classical conditioning.)
- secondary (Correct. Stickers serve as a secondary reinforcer, as they can be tied to a primary reinforcer to increase the likelihood of a behavior.)
A: secondary

Q: Money is an example of which type of reinforcer?
- operant (Incorrect. This term is too broad. Reinforcers and punishers are used in operant conditioning, but this prompt is asking for a more specific term.)
- primary (Incorrect. While we might think it’s a primary reinforcer, money is only good for what needs it can satisfy, making it a secondary enforcer.)
- associative (Incorrect. Operant conditioning, which uses reinforcers, is a type of associative learning, but this term is too broad for this question.)
- secondary (Correct. Money can be instrumental in meeting primary needs, and can be coupled with a primary reinforcer to strengthen operant conditioning.)
A: secondary

Q: Henry is observing beetles for his biology project. They return to their nest at unpredictable intervals all day long, so Henry keeps a close watch all day. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
- fixed interval (Incorrect. If Henry could predict at what times the beetles would nest, then this would be a fixed interval ratio. For example, if they returned to their nest every 30 minutes, this would be their interval.)
- variable ratio (Incorrect. A variable ratio schedule would involve a varying number of beetles returning to their nest in an unpredictable fashion. For instance, if three beetles nested the first time, then ten, then five, etc. this would be a variable ratio schedule.)
- fixed ratio (Incorrect. If the same number of beetles returned to the nest each time, this would be a fixed ratio schedule.)
- variable interval (Correct. Henry can’t predict when the beetles will return to their nest, so they are returning at a variable interval which Henry must observe all day.)
A: variable interval

Q: You are trying to enter a prize drawing at the radio station but the lines are busy. You continue to call every 1-5 minutes hoping to get on the air. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
- fixed ratio (Incorrect. If you are trying to be the fifth caller, for example, you might try calling every fifth time you hear someone speaking on the radio station you are trying to contact. This does not seem to be the optimal schedule for this scenario.)
- variable ratio (Incorrect. A variable ratio schedule might depend on how many times you get the busy signal from the radio station and after how many busy signals you decide to leave a message; but this schedule doesn’t work well with this scenario.)
- fixed interval (Incorrect. If you called back reliably every minute, for instance, you’d be following a fixed interval schedule.)
- variable interval (Correct. You don’t know when the winning prize is going to come, so you keep calling at random intervals to hope you call at the right time.)
A: variable interval

Q: ________ reinforcement is giving a reinforcer every time that a behavior is displayed.
- partial (Incorrect. Partial reinforcement schedules vary in how often or at what ratio they reinforce a behavior.)
- primary (Incorrect. Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing, but primary reinforcement is not a schedule of reinforcement.)
- intermittent (Incorrect. Intermittent is another word for partial, and if a behavior is rewarded every time, it is not being partially or intermittently reinforced.)
- continuous (Correct. Continuous reinforcement rewards a behavior every time it is displayed.)
A: continuous

Q: Monthly paychecks are an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?
- fixed ratio (Incorrect. If Gus was paid by piece of work he produced, then he’d be on a fixed ratio schedule.)
- variable ratio (Incorrect. If Gus was an artist, perhaps, his works may be worth different sums of money, depending on what he produced. Selling his art piecework might be a variable ratio schedule, as he is not getting equal compensation per each unit he produces.)
- variable interval (Incorrect. Assuming Gus is an artist, he may go months in between selling his works at some points in time, while at other times, he may sell several in one month; this would be a variable interval schedule.)
- fixed interval (Correct. Gus can expect to be paid each month (at a given time interval).)
A: fixed interval

Q: Napoleon works at the golf course. In addition to his salary, they told him he can get $10 for every bucket he fills with stray balls he finds scattered throughout the course. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
- fixed interval (Incorrect. Napoleon’s regular salary is likely on a fixed interval schedule, unlike the buckets of golf balls he collects, which are on a by-lot basis.)
- variable interval (Incorrect. If Napoleon got paid at random times for picking up stray golf balls, then he might be on a variable interval schedule, but in his current situation, he is compensated for each bucket of balls he turns in.)
- variable ratio (Incorrect. If Napoleon did not get paid for every bucket of golf balls he turned in, but sometimes got paid for every three or four, or sometimes ten, then he’d be on a variable ratio schedule.)
- fixed ratio (Correct. Napoleon gets the same amount of money for every bucket of balls he turns in, making this a fixed ratio schedule.)
A: fixed ratio

Q: Which of the following is an example of fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?
- feeding your fish every day at 8 a.m. (Incorrect. This is a fixed interval schedule, as it depends on the time of day.)
- playing the slot machine (Incorrect. Slot machines operate on a variable ratio schedule, so the user does not know how many inputs it takes to win.)
- giving your dog a treat every time she goes to the bathroom outside (Incorrect. This is a continuous schedule of reinforcement, because you reinforce your dog every time she behaves as you wish.)
- getting five bucks from your parents every time you learn 3 new songs on the violin (Correct. This is a fixed ratio schedule, as you are rewarded with money for every three songs you learn.)
A: getting five bucks from your parents every time you learn 3 new songs on the violin

Q: Which of the following is an example of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule?
- Paloma sending her relatives birthday cards on each of their birthdays throughout the year (Incorrect. This would be a variable interval schedule, because the time between sending each card will vary by how far apart each relative’s birthday is.)
- Milan checking Facebook throughout the workday (Incorrect. Milan checks Facebook at different intervals and for different periods of time throughout the day, making it a variable interval schedule.)
- Frank playing scratch-off lottery tickets (Incorrect. Frank has no certainty any of his scratch-off tickets will win, but he keeps on playing on the chance he will win big, making this a variable ratio schedule.)
- Iliana taking her dog to the vet once a year (Correct. This is a fixed interval schedule because the same amount of time elapses between each vet appointment (one year).)
A: Iliana taking her dog to the vet once a year

Q: Which of the following is an example of a variable interval reinforcement schedule?
- playing basketball with your friends after completing your chores (Incorrect. This requires an objective to be met before being able to play, so it would represent a fixed ratio schedule (1 chore session= 1 play session).)
- taking your dog to the park every afternoon at 4:00 p.m. (Incorrect. This is a fixed interval schedule, as the same amount of time elapses between each excursion to the park.)
- Buying raffle tickets to win a new barbeque grill. (Incorrect. A raffle is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, as the ultimate result of the drawing is a random selection of ticket.)
- checking your Facebook account at random times throughout the day (Correct. This is a variable interval schedule because random intervals of time elapse between times you check your Facebook account, and you likely spend varying amounts of time on Facebook each time.)
A: checking your Facebook account at random times throughout the day

Q: If Jamal is teaching his son to say please and gives him a high-five each time he says it, then he is reinforcing his behavior on a ________ reinforcement schedule.
- variable interval (That’s not quite right. Interval refers the amount of time that elapses between instances of the behavior. This scenario has the reward based on the instance of the behavior.)
- variable ratio (That’s not quite right. A variable ratio means that the reward comes after a variable number of times the behavior occurs.)
- fixed interval (That’s not quite right. If Jamal rewarded his son based on a set amount of time elapsing (for example, every two minutes,) then he’d be reinforcing at a fixed interval.)
- continuous (That’s right. Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs is a continuous reinforcement schedule.)
A: continuous

Q: Playing the slots at a casino works on a ________ reinforcement schedule.
- Fixed interval (That’s incorrect. A fixed interval schedule would provide a payoff after a set amount of time has passed.)
- Fixed ratio (That’s not quite right. The number of times that Janet has to pull down the level to get a payoff changes and is not fixed.)
- Variable interval (That’s incorrect. If the machines paid out at differing time intervals, then they would operate on a variable interval schedule. This wouldn’t work well, because it wouldn’t require human input, and machines would offer payouts at random times. Casino denizens would need only patience to win on this schedule.)
- Variable ratio (That’s right. This is a variable ratio schedule as the number of times a lever is pulled changes or is varied before a payoff takes place.)
A: Variable ratio

Q: Learning that does not reveal itself until it is needed is called
- observational learning. (Incorrect. Observational learning can be demonstrated, and is learned by watching others.)
- applied learning (Incorrect. Applied learning implies learning an observable behavior, skill, or knowledge that one could apply to a test, for example, as a clear connection to what was taught. Nothing is hidden.)
- shaping (Incorrect. Shaping is a deliberate form of operant conditioning that rewards successive approximations of a desired behavior until that behavior is displayed.)
- latent learning (Correct. Latent learning takes place below the threshold of obvious learning. We may learn a skill while learning another relevant skill, but only display that latent learning when the need arises for us to use it.)
A: latent learning

Q: ________ broke the constraints of ________, which emphasized that learning was the direct consequence of conditioning to stimuli.
- Observational learning; classical conditioning (Incorrect. Observational learning gave behaviorism some issues, because it showed how learning could take place through observation, not just conditioning, but this answer cannot be correct because classical conditioning is just one part of behaviorism.)
- Latent learning; operant conditioning (Incorrect. It is correct that latent learning broke the constraints of behaviorism, of which operant conditioning is only a part, so this answer is incomplete.)
- behaviorism, latent learning (Incorrect. The order of the answers is backwards. Remember that in latent learning, learning is not readily observable until the need arises to use a skill learned. Behaviorism draws a line directly between conditioning and behavior.)
- Latent learning; behaviorism (Correct. Latent learning is not directly observable until a need arises to demonstrate that learning. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of conditioning in learning.)
A: Latent learning; behaviorism

Q: The basic idea behind observational learning is that
- Learning is the result of reinforcing desired behavior at fixed intervals. (Incorrect. This explains one reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning.)
- Organisms cannot learn if they do not receive immediate reinforcement. (Incorrect. This is a strict behaviorist point of view.)
- Learning occurs under the level of our consciousness. (Incorrect. This more accurately describes latent learning, while observational learning involves cognitive processes.)
- Learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say. (Correct. Observational learning brings in the cognitive process, taking into account what we think about as we watch others and model their behaviors.)
A: Learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say.

Q: How could you design an experiment around the social learning theory?
- reward people who correctly copy the behavior of a character on a t.v. show. (Incorrect. The use of rewards and punishments are mechanisms of operant conditioning.)
- blindfolding participants and have them walk to another side of the room while other voices distract them. (Incorrect. This doesn’t really test what people learn through observation, because they are blindfolded; this might be a good test of one’s cognitive map of a place, though.)
- draw a line on a piece of paper and show it to participants, testing who can reproduce the line most accurately. (Incorrect. This might seem like social learning, but it takes perception into account, and doesn’t really test what the participants have learned, but rather, how they see the line, which may vary by their point of view or distance from it.)
- determine how long it takes someone to master a complex yoga move by looking at someone else. (Correct. Modeling someone else performing a complex yoga move uses social learning theory.)
A: determine how long it takes someone to master a complex yoga move by looking at someone else.

Q: According to the principles of social learning theory, Claire is likely to demonstrate aggressive behavior if she
- watches her brother act out and get in trouble for it. (Incorrect. Claire can see her brother getting in trouble and make the decision not to act the same way he did in order to avoid getting in trouble.)
- has a dream about getting in a fight with her parents. (Incorrect. This would probably upset Claire. Unless her dream self was rewarded for fighting with her parents, it wouldn’t increase her likelihood of acting aggressively.)
- gets bored during a school assembly about anti-bullying (Incorrect. Just because Claire is apathetic about the anti-bullying assembly does not mean she has picked up aggressive feelings to counter it.)
- sees a character on t.v. get rewarded for being violent towards another character. (Correct. The t.v. character serves as a model for violent behavior, and Claire is more likely to act aggressively if she sees the character get rewarded.)
A: sees a character on t.v. get rewarded for being violent towards another character.

Q: Matthias watched his older brother get arrested for selling drugs. He followed the steps of the modeling process to know that he doesn’t want to get involved with selling drugs himself. These steps are:
- motivation, intuitiveness, desire, and replication. (Incorrect. Motivation comes last, as it is the impetus to act; first we must pay attention to the model we are observing. Intuitiveness and desire are not part of the process, though desire might easily be confused with motivation. Replication is a synonym for reproduction, so watch out for the terminology used in the text.)
- motivation, attention, replication, and retention. (Incorrect. Remember that motivation is the push to act, so it comes last. Attention and retention are key to learning, before one can reproduce an action.)
- retention, attention, motivation, reproduction (Incorrect. Before we can retain information we must pay attention to it (step 1), then comes retention, then reproduction and the motivation to act.)
- attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. (Correct. To model a behavior, we must first pay attention to it, then retain that information, then be able to reproduce the behavior, then have sufficient motivation to do so.)
A: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Q: Before Bandura proposed his Bobo doll experiment, most learning specialists believed that learning only occurred ________.
- when that individual clearly understood the principles behind the idea to be learned (That's incorrect. At the time Bandura did his work, most learning specialists did not think that learning primarily involved understanding principles and insight. They focused more on how behavior led to consequences—rewards and punishments—and how these consequences shaped behavior.)
- when an individual observed another person engaging in the activity (That's incorrect. Bandura was the person who went against the general belief of learning theorists at the time and proposed that learning by observation might be as powerful as learning through trial-and-error. Most learning specialists at the time believed that learning primarily occurred when an individual did something and observed the consequences—rewards or punishment—of those actions.)
- when an individual had sufficient motivation to reveal hidden learning. (That’s incorrect. At the time Bandura did his work, behaviorism was prevalent, and specialists believed that learning primarily occurred through actions and consequences (rewards and punishments) for those behaviors. Tolman introduced the idea of latent learning, which involved mental processes and latent learning, but his view was not the prevailing view of the time.)
- when an individual did something and discovered the consequences directly (That's correct! Most learning specialists believed that learning primarily occurred when an individual did something and experienced the consequences of those actions. The idea that we can learn without actually experiencing consequences seemed unreasonable to these learning specialists.)
A: when an individual did something and discovered the consequences directly