Title: Middle Adulthood
Course: Question Banks

Q: At age 60, Sanda begins to be more aware of her sarcopenia, which she hopes to postpone with frequent exercise. What is sarcopenia?
- a neurological condition experienced by over half of people above age 60. (Incorrect. Perhaps this answer option is alluding towards dementia, but dementia is only experienced by 10% of people during their lifetime.)
- the decline of liver function common with alcohol abuse. (Incorrect. Cirrhosis is the scarring and damage of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, but associated with chronic alcoholism.)
- problems in the joints of the hand. (Incorrect. This is arthritis.)
- the general loss of mass and function as part of the aging process. (Correct! Sarcopenia is a loss of muscle mass, function and nerve connectivity to muscles.)
A: the general loss of mass and function as part of the aging process.

Q: Isabel was in good health until she noticed an increase in osteosarcopenia in her mid-60s. What is osteosarcopenia?
- a disease of the liver (Incorrect. However, both sarcopenia and osteoporosis is associated with liver disease in advanced stages)
- an excess of uric acid in the blood (Incorrect. However, elevated uric acid is associated with osteoporosis, raising the chances of the latter by 20%. Some studies claim that elevated uric acid may actually be a protective factor against sarcopenia)
- a progressive deterioration of kidney function (Incorrect. However both sarcopenia and osteoporosis are associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD))
- a disease that includes the loss of muscle mass and bone mass density (Correct! It is a disease that combines the symptoms of sarcopenia and osteoporosis. That is, a loss of muscle mass, function and nerve connectivity to muscles, allied to the loss of bone mass density associated with either osteoporosis which is a serious condition leading to bone fractures, or osteopenia which is associated with a lesser loss of bone density.)
A: a disease that includes the loss of muscle mass and bone mass density

Q: There is now increasing evidence about the harmful effects of chronic inflammation in general. It is implicated in a whole series of degenerative illnesses. What diet is recommended in helping to avoid this?
- A diet with high quantities of red and processed meat. (Incorrect. these should be avoided as they are identified as linked with higher levels of chronic inflammation)
- A diet with high sugar energy drinks (Incorrect. these should be avoided as they are identified as linked with higher levels of chronic inflammation. People with higher blood sugar levels have a faster rate of cognitive decline.)
- A diet low in protein. (Incorrect. Protein is beneficial in maintaining muscle mass and bone density.)
- The Mediterranaean Diet (Correct! This diet includes fatty fish, vegetables, berries, peppers, and tea. It is often used to explain why some countries have a much lower level of coronary heart disease than the U.S.)
A: The Mediterranaean Diet

Q: Saaeda notices that her eyesight is not quite as sharp as it used to be. This is caused by a slight weakening of the muscle around her eyes as she is gets into her fifties. This is known as
- gout (Incorrect. this is inflammation caused by the deposit of uric acid crystals in the joint. Occular complications are very rare.)
- gingivitis (Incorrect. a minor form of gum disease usually caused by bacterial infection)
- sarcopenia (This is a degenerative loss of muscle mass associated with aging.)
- presbyopia (Correct. This comes from the Greek “old eye.” It refers to less elasticity in the lens causing farsightedness that is cured by bifocals.)
A: presbyopia

Q: One reason for hearing loss at this time of life is otosclerosis, which affects women more than men, for reasons unknown. How does it affect hearing?
- It is a side effect of diabetes (Incorrect. This can affect hearing but not cause this condition.)
- It is caused by excessive noise in workplace environments such as mineworking or car manufacturing. (Incorrect. This can cause hearing loss but this condition affects women more than men and the latter are more common in workplace environments such as these.)
- Dietary deficiencies (Incorrect. These have no known effects on this process.)
- It impedes the movement of sound from middle to inner ear due to abnormal bone growth in the middle ear causing rigidity and thus an obstruction. (Correct. This occurs when one of the bones in the middle ear, the stapes, acquires a rigidity via abnormal bone growth which it should not have. Unable to vibrate, it induces hearing impairment.)
A: It impedes the movement of sound from middle to inner ear due to abnormal bone growth in the middle ear causing rigidity and thus an obstruction.

Q: Menopause in women is a natural part of aging. During this transition the body’s production of two hormones fluctuate and decrease. One is progesterone, the other is ________
- serotonin (Incorrect. This hormone is associated with the brain and is related to its central functions such as sleep, learning and so on. It has been associated with depression in humans. It can also affect mood states. Exactly how it interacts with estrogen in the brain is still relatively unknown.)
- cortisol (Incorrect. This hormone secreted by the adrenal gland is associated with providing energy when a physiological response is needed. It has been associated with elevated stress levels and anxiety.)
- adrenaline (Incorrect. This hormone is associated with the fight or flight response in humans and provides some extra impetus to our physical states in emergency situations.)
- estrogen (Correct. This steroid hormone initiates and controls a number of crucial physiological functions related to reproduction but is also connected to bone production and can affect the workings of the brain.)
A: estrogen

Q: ________ describes the experience of men during the climacteric.
- Menopause (Incorrect. This is the period of transition in which a woman's ovaries stop releasing eggs and the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases.)
- Osteoporosis (Incorrect. This is the decline and loss of bone density and the increasing fragile and brittle condition of bones from a loss of tissue)
- Presbycusis (Incorrect. This is hearing loss as a result of aging)
- Andropause (Correct. It is a somewhat controversial term used to describe symptoms in males associated with declines in testosterone.)
A: Andropause

Q: What are personal control beliefs?
- The idea that life cannot be controlled in any way, shape or form and is set by conditions of historical circumstances completely out of our control. This is a theory associated with social and natural forms of determinism. (Incorrect. In fact, it is diametrically opposed to this idea that we can affect life outcomes to an appreciable extent.)
- A form of psychosis associated with delusions of media influence often associated with substance use and serious mental illness (Incorrect. Personal control beliefs have a positive effect on both physical and mental health.)
- A theory associated with Eastern philosophy on the importance of transcendental meditation which are now attracting greater attention in the western world. (Incorrect. Personal control beliefs have their origins in the work of Rotter and Bandura.)
- The idea that the individual can dictate outcomes in a specific situation. (Correct! These beliefs relate to the strength of self-efficacy within the individual and the extent to which life is perceived to be controllable and predictable. These beliefs mediate our experience of stress, our level of life satisfaction and can affect mental health.)
A: The idea that the individual can dictate outcomes in a specific situation.

Q: Ramscar et al, (2014) did research to find that a decline in information processing speed is not necessarily indicative of a decline in cognitive capability. They do not deny that older adults take longer to process information in the manner indicated by the tests, only that this is the result because
- older adults forget words and thus take longer to complete the task. (Incorrect. On the contrary, it is the larger vocabulary of older adults that is part of the central issue. Vocabulary is not age-invariant, searching through available linguistic descriptors takes time.)
- older adults take longer to follow written instructions and thus take longer to complete the test. (Incorrect. there is no consistent evidence that this is the case.)
- the performance of older adults is dictated by methodological flaws in the measuring of information processing speeds. (Incorrect. The accuracy of the results is not contested, only that they reflect the greater time necessitated by the navigation of a more complex system.)
- the same cognitive mechanism processing different quantities of information. (Correct. More information taken in over the lifecourse, equals more complexity, equals more time taken to navigate our cognitive architecture.)
A: the same cognitive mechanism processing different quantities of information.

Q: David is retiring from the company after thirty years. His boss, Sandra, is worried that the person she is training to replace him may not be able to. She has shown him all the systems, and introduced him to customers and clients. The new person is proficient in all of those systems (more so probably than David), and he is extremely personable. “Why am I so worried?” wonders Sandra. The answer has something to do with tacit knowledge, which is ________.
- a form of knowledge that can be rendered in explicit and precise terms and described in clear linguistic or lexical fashion. (Incorrect. Tacit knowledge by its very nature eludes capture in verbal, categorical form)
- a form of knowledge that is easily transferred from one person to another by a training schedule or structured interview. (Incorrect. It is a form of knowledge that is almost impossible to transfer within an organization and can be very highly prized by firms.)
- a form of knowledge that can be passed from expert to novice. (Incorrect. Tacit knowledge might be understood as embodied knowledge akin to that of an artist, who may have apprentices, who, in turn, may become masters but will never completely mimic that artist.)
- knowledge which cannot be codified, transferred in a written form, or even properly verbalized, and, therefore, difficult to transfer. (Correct. Such knowledge is extremely valuable and highly prized by organizations)
A: knowledge which cannot be codified, transferred in a written form, or even properly verbalized, and, therefore, difficult to transfer.

Q: Exactly when fluid intelligence begins to decrease is an object of some debate in the academic literature. Some date it from the late 20s, others somewhat later, around the mid 40s. There are of course differences between individual persons. Assuming Jim is in his late 50s, what kind of cognitive information will he likely process in slower fashion that when he was 20?
- recognizing familiar faces (Incorrect. There is some variation between age cohorts but it is unlikely that Jim will have any problems with facial recognition at this age as opposed to 20.)
- servicing his old lawnmower (Incorrect. There should be no difference, indeed he may be quicker due to his previous experience with it.)
- knowledge of gardening (Incorrect. Jim may be physically slower, but his knowledge of plants is likely to exceed that of his 20s.)
- new or novel information (Correct. Note that this only means that Jim processes this information more slowly, not that he cannot do so, or do so in a thorough fashion.)
A: new or novel information

Q: Fluid intelligence is concerned with the cognitive mechanics of the human mind; Crystallized intelligence with the skills and experience acquired over a period of time. Nunes & Kramer (2009) compared older and younger air traffic controllers in Canada. They found a significant difference between information processing speeds in tasks unrelated to their occupation which favored the younger group. However, with regard to cognitive tasks related to the job, the results were largely identical. How did they explain this?
- Deficiencies in the training of the younger group (Incorrect. Both groups had largely undergone the same kind of formal training as the other.)
- The older group had been trained over a longer period of time and thereby had more fluid intelligence based on their training. (Incorrect. The time spent on formal training was largely the same and took place early in the careers of each group.)
- The qualifications of each group was different, so differences in intelligence and performance are minor. (Incorrect. Both groups had similar qualifications/ experience when becoming controllers.)
- It’s a trade-off, with crystallized intelligence gained from experience compensating for a decline in information processing speeds (Correct. Experience offers compensatory strategies which offset declines in fluid intelligence.)
A: It’s a trade-off, with crystallized intelligence gained from experience compensating for a decline in information processing speeds

Q: Crystallized intelligence is knowledge accumulated over a period of time. It can be acquired via experience, professional and personal, travel, reading and education. It is usually culturally based and can be the result of both choice and personal circumstances. It is sometimes described as cognitive pragmatics and opposed to the cognitive processing of fluid intelligence. It is usually measured by
- pattern recognition based on spatial organization. (Incorrect. Such tests are associated with fluid intelligence which seeks to measure intellectual capacity irrespective of culture and language)
- concept formation via visual puzzles. (Incorrect. Such tests are usually associated with fluid intelligence which seeks to measure cognitive processes independent of culture.)
- deduction based on diagrams. (Incorrect. Such tests are usually associated with fluid intelligence which looks at deductive reasoning independent of cultural influence.)
- vocabulary tests, interpretation of texts. (Correct. These are items often acquired over a considerable period of time and demonstrate immersion in a particular social and cultural context.)
A: vocabulary tests, interpretation of texts.

Q: If a person successfully navigates Erikson’s seventh stage of psychosocial development, they will have mastered the virtue of ________.
- wisdom (Incorrect. This virtue is associated with the final stage of integrity vs. despair.)
- love (Incorrect. This virtue is associated with the conflict of intimacy vs. isolation.)
- competence. (Incorrect. This virtue is associated with industry vs. inferiority.)
- care (Correct. This is the stage of generativity vs. stagnation.)
A: care

Q: According to Erikson, middle adulthood should be associated with which of the following qualities or virtues?
- economic success (Incorrect. This stage is more about ensuring the success of others.)
- status and dominance (Incorrect. This stage is more about ensuring the success of others.)
- physiological self-improvement (Incorrect. This stage is about the improvement of others rather than the self.)
- care for others (Correct. This stage is distinguished by concern for a generalized other.)
A: care for others

Q: Paula’s children have moved out of the house and she now has two young grandchildren. She finds herself often thinking about how she can pass on her legacy to them and decides to be more involved in their lives, as well as in the community. Paula’s behavior coincides with how John Kotre (1984) defined generativity as a ________.
- passing stage of development lasting no more than a decade. (Incorrect. He believed that this impulse could manifest itself throughout the life course.)
- form of creativity with no underlying impulse or drive. (Incorrect. For Kotre, individual generativity in the strict sense is a fundamental impulse of the human species.)
- moral imperative that had to be awakened by education and culture (Incorrect. For Kotre, generativity might be facilitated by such factors but they were not the cause of generativity.)
- form of investment. (Correct. That is, as “a desire to invest one’s substance in forms of life and work that will outlive the self” (1984: 10))
A: form of investment.

Q: A midlife adult who is struggling with generativity would be described as someone experiencing stagnation. How might this be described?
- A condition that is akin to major depressive disorder, constituting a withdrawal from all aspects of social interaction. (Incorrect. Erikson does not describe stagnation as a mental condition or disorder, being perhaps more akin to a negative attitude)
- The display of symptoms resembling anxiety, denoting a withdrawal from the social world. (Incorrect. Erikson does not describe stagnation in terms of anxiety symptoms, merely as a negative attitude)
- A mild form of dissociative state that is temporary in nature and passes after a period of a few months. (Incorrect. Erikson does not describe stagnation in this manner, it is not linked to any loss of personal identity.)
- An absence of involvement, inclusivity, and concern for others. (Correct. While generativity is marked by the full presence of all three of these things, stagnation is when a person uninvolved, unconcerned, and lacking in growth or development.)
A: An absence of involvement, inclusivity, and concern for others.

Q: Levinson developed the “stage crisis view”, similar to Erikson’s concept of crisis in many ways. What is the key difference with regard to midlife ?
- Levinson placed a much greater emphasis on physiological changes which accompany aging from 30 onwards. (Incorrect. There is no such emphasis at this stage of the life course.)
- Levinson believed that the majority of individuals become obsessed with an individual aspect of life to the detriment of others (Incorrect. This might be possible on an individual basis but is neither inescapable nor common.)
- Levinson adopted a strict version of Freudianism which argued that a midlife crisis was solely the result of unresolved issues from childhood. (Incorrect. Levinson did not adopt such a view based on psychoanalytical theory.)
- Levinson proposed a wider set of influential factors, work, family, but also religion, ethnicity, socio-economic status, which may induce a “crisis” at this time of life. (Correct. And one might note that Levinson believes that the individual’s desires now comes to the forefront, and may conflict with how they are currently perceived across this range of factors)
A: Levinson proposed a wider set of influential factors, work, family, but also religion, ethnicity, socio-economic status, which may induce a “crisis” at this time of life.

Q: Levinson believed that social identity was marked by quite pronounced differences in terms of gender. He believed that the “female dream,” was subject to a fundamental dichotomy which made for often difficult choices. What was that dichotomy?
- Looking after children and their older parents (Incorrect. Adults of both sexes would later be identified as belonging to the “sandwich generation,” though research shows the burden does fall disproportionately on women.)
- Educational attainment and starting a family (Incorrect. This may be somewhat related to the female dream but it was not Levinson’s explicit concern.)
- Cross-generational difficulties between mothers and daughters (Incorrect. Changing expectations may have caused pressures in this area but it was not Levinson’s area of enquiry.)
- work/occupation and marriage/family (Correct. Levinson believed that these dual demands would place a great strain on how women formed and maintained their sense of self.)
A: work/occupation and marriage/family

Q: What fundamental methodological limitation can be identified in Levinson’s work (and in a good number of other studies in the social sciences)?
- Levinson used a type of survey which was ill-suited to the task, and led him to form conclusions that midlife was experienced in a negative fashion. (Incorrect. Levinson did not employ this kind of methodology.)
- Levinson employed an experimental design that failed to account for a control group. (Incorrect. Levinson never employed a strategy based on the principles of experimental design in relation to his research on aging)
- The study was conducted without detailing all of the operations and methods, which makes it difficult to replicate. (Incorrect. In fact, several replication attempts have revealed no such thing as a midlife crisis.)
- The sample size is far too small to be confident in extrapolating from its findings to the supposed characteristics of a general population. (Correct! Research is time-consuming and expensive, which can result in small sample sizes.)
A: The sample size is far too small to be confident in extrapolating from its findings to the supposed characteristics of a general population.

Q: Socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) states that our goals and priorities usually change in midlife. Rather than long term goals, we become more concerned with life-satisfaction in the present. This in linked to a belief that
- Time, and age, is much less important in midlife than early adulthood dues to greater financial security. (Incorrect. This is not the argument of SST.)
- Time can now be spent with a much wider circle of family and friends. (Incorrect. SST generally results in smaller circles of family and friends.)
- That life can “begin” at any age and is largely free of any temporal perspective. (Incorrect. On the contrary, SST argues that people become more aware of their temporal timeline.)
- future time is limited. (Correct! Time left, is now less than time that has been lived.)
A: future time is limited.

Q: Socioemotional selectivity theory is connected to the idea of "mortality salience.” What does this mean?
- It is a theory of physical and psychical degeneration related to age. (Incorrect. These thoughts may become more pressing with age but they do not arise at a particular part of the life-course being supposed to exist at all times of life.)
- This describes a process of cellular degeneration in the brain linked to age. (Incorrect. Mortality salience is not linked with any genetic or physiological processes. It is not a death drive akin to that of Freud.)
- This is the idea that processes around grief and loss are undergoing fundamental social change. (Incorrect. Individuals may well experiences fear of others dying. However, this concept is very much centered around the idea of one’s own death.)
- This is the idea that humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death and adopt thoughts and behaviors which seek to deny or suppress such knowledge. (Correct! It is often associated with "terror management theory", but also lies at the basis of socio-emotional selectivity theory which believes that persons will prioritize emotional goals and relationships when finitude becomes more apparent)
A: This is the idea that humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death and adopt thoughts and behaviors which seek to deny or suppress such knowledge.

Q: If socioemotional selectivity theory is based on the perception of time left, then Baltes SOC theory of “successful aging” is based on
- The idea that humans must accept and reconcile themselves to aging. (Incorrect. This was not Baltes perspective—continued individual engagement could ameliorate some issues associated with aging.)
- Accepting the prevalent idea of society that aging is about disengaging from social and professional roles. (Incorrect. Baltes believed that such a belief was actually harmful and should be resisted.)
- A theory that viewed aging as an inexorable physiological process which determined patterns of thinking and behavior. (Incorrect. Baltes believed that such a belief was actually harmful and should be resisted.)
- The inner resources and drive of the individual choosing options and confronting circumstances. (Correct. SOC theory would inform later work coming from a strengths, and, particularly, a resiliency perspective.)
A: The inner resources and drive of the individual choosing options and confronting circumstances.

Q: Ghislieri and Gatti (2012) identify “generative leadership” and “intergenerational transfer” as key to the future economic success of countries like Italy. What is generative leadership?
- a form of leadership derived from the principles of military leadership (Incorrect. This may have applications in military organizations but this theory was not derived from thinking related to military strategy. However, a great deal of management theory is so derived.)
- a form of leadership linked to the management of supply chains (Incorrect. Generative leadership might be applied here but is intended to apply to management in general and its primary motivation.)
- a management theory inspired by prolonging economic return in later life (Incorrect. This philosophy is inspired by Erikson’s view that this period of life should be about passing on a legacy. In this case, it means knowledge, skills, and experience.)
- the passing of entrepreneurial and organizational skills to a future generation (Correct. This is motivated by the principles first identified by Erikson of fostering the interests of that generation by those aged 40-65.)
A: the passing of entrepreneurial and organizational skills to a future generation

Q: A person’s subjective age can change on a
- monthly basis (Incorrect. This is an overestimate of the time period required for change in our own perception of aging. This points to the importance of feedback given by others on age-appropriate behaviors and attittudes way past childhood)
- yearly basis (Incorrect. This is an overestimate of the time period required for change in our own perception of aging. This points to the importance of feedback given by others on age-appropriate behaviors and attittudes way past childhood)
- weekly basis (Incorrect. This is an overestimate of the time period required for change in our own perception of aging. This points to the importance of feedback given by others on age-appropriate behaviors and attitudes way past childhood)
- daily basis (Correct. This may confirm the importance of avoiding situations that reinforce negative connotations of aging.)
A: daily basis

Q: An increase in subjective well-being was linked to what social living arrangement?
- cohabitation (Incorrect. This is second only to marriage in levels of satisfaction.)
- single, living by oneself (Incorrect, though single people report higher levels than divorced persons)
- divorced (Incorrect, people who are divorced report the lowest levels of happiness)
- marriage (Correct. This has been reported by a wide variety of sociologists and psychologists.)
A: marriage

Q: The decline in relationship satisfaction over time has been explained as “a return to a hedonic set-point”. How is the latter understood?
- An idea associated with classical utilitarian social philosophy (Incorrect. This idea of a set-point in each individual is not present in this body of work)
- The idea that human happiness is solely the result of hormonal process in the body (Incorrect. The latter might be identified as a contributory factor to human happiness but not in entirety or isolation from other factors such as personality)
- The idea that individual happiness is largely set by the wider society of which we are part. (Incorrect. Social influences, though important, have not been linked to the idea of a set-point within individuals.)
- The idea that people have a baseline of personal happiness that is largely set by personality traits, and that they will return to this baseline regardless of positive and negative events in their life. (Correct. The only exception might be particularly traumatic events such as wartime experiences)
A: The idea that people have a baseline of personal happiness that is largely set by personality traits, and that they will return to this baseline regardless of positive and negative events in their life.

Q: David Olson and Blaine Fowers (1993) found that only around 1 in 10 marriages could be awarded the highest score for overall relationship quality. He described these as vitalized marriages. They were described as being based on a high level of self-disclosure, expression of sentiment, shared beliefs, religious and secular, and
- regular relationship counseling (Incorrect. There was no evidence that this kind of marriage would require such activity.)
- shared hobbies (Incorrect. No evidence for such specific commonalities was found.)
- the number of children (Incorrect. Olson found no link between number of children and this specific kind of marriage.)
- higher income levels (Correct. This, and other research, found a correlation between income level and marital satisfaction.)
A: higher income levels

Q: Clark and Lois have a generally happy marriage but also have some conflicts in their marriage that they argue about on a weekly, sometimes daily basis. Clark’s spontaneous absences, Lois’ intense work schedule, and insecurities that are unlikely to change are what John Gottman would call ________.
- irreconcilable difference (Incorrect. Not irreconcilable but requiring constant attention)
- hangover differences (Incorrect. They may result from a variety of sources including the personalities of the individuals involved)
- courtship difficulties (Incorrect. However, one might wonder whether such a period does ensure compatibility given such a figure.)
- perpetual conflicts (Correct. Thus showing the importance of constant negotiation and communication within marriage.)
A: perpetual conflicts

Q: Family members, primarily women, often perform a valuable function in keeping other family members informed about the well-being of other family members. This creating, maintaining and monitoring function informs other family members when others need emotional and physical support. This has come to be known in the academic literature as ________.
- Organizing family reunions (Incorrect. This can be part of the kinkeeping function and can be vital in reenergizing family ties when members are far apart.)
- Family communication (Incorrect. This can be part of the kinkeeping function and the organizing of sending cards on special occasions can be important in maintaining family ties even in a minimal sense.)
- Family rituals (Incorrect. This can be part of the kinkeeping function and organizing events such as Thanksgiving may be vital in maintaining family ties.)
- kinkeeping (Correct. This task is a vital part of the emotional labor often undertaken by women in fostering and maintaining family connections. It can cover a multitude of tasks)
A: kinkeeping

Q: The University of California in its report on the “sandwich generation” (2014) reckoned that federal and state services, hospitals and social workers, and primary physicians provided less than 20% of total care for the long-term sick and disabled. What makes up the remaining 80%?
- Medicare provided nurses (Incorrect. Any such provision is covered in the 20% figure referred to above..)
- Female family members. (Incorrect. The burden does fall disproportionately on women, but this is not the percentage we’re looking for here. The UC study reported that women spent 26 hours a week, on average, looking after an elderly loved one, men 16.)
- paid caregivers. (Incorrect. This is included in the 20% figure referred to above. The formal cost of looking after the elderly is about $250 billion. The economic cost of replacing informal care would be around three times that.)
- informal care (Correct. The report identified that 10% of Californians in total belonged to the sandwich generation or were primary carers. Some studies have suggested that elderly spouses actually provide even more care than the “sandwich generation.”)
A: informal care

Q: Over the past 25 years, the divorce rate for people over 50 has doubled, and tripled for those over 60, yet Cohen (2018) predicts a fall in divorce rates due to ________ .
- an increase in cohabitation and dating multiple partners. (Incorrect. While cohabitation is on the rise, this does not result in lower divorce rates.)
- the rise in women working outside of the home, combined with increasing childbirth rates that are making marriage more popular, (Incorrect. These have continued to decline over the past decade.)
- divorce being seen as increasingly unacceptable in a cultural sense and the rise in restrictive divorce laws. (Incorrect. There is evidence that the contrary is in fact the case.)
- increases in educational attainment and the fact that “baby boomers” are simply a divorce prone cohort. (Correct. Cohen shows conclusively that divorce rates for generation X and millennials are substantially lower, and that this accounts for the substantial decline in divorce overall.)
A: increases in educational attainment and the fact that “baby boomers” are simply a divorce prone cohort.

Q: Significantly more men repartner after “gray divorce”—22% of women and 37% of men. Women live longer than men, but this would not account for this difference in ratio. What two reasons are given to describe this large numerical difference?
- Men live longer than women, consequently there is a larger pool of men. (Incorrect. In the USA women live, on average, about 5 years longer than men. The gap varies from country to country but it holds without exception. The reasons are unclear, ranging from the biological to lifestyle choices.)
- Men derive substantial health and income benefits from marriage/cohabitation. (Incorrect. Research does show that men derive great benefits than women but this does not explain this numerical discrepancy in available partners.)
- These numbers are the result of methodological flaws and statistical miscalculations in the research literature. (Incorrect. Data in this area is difficult to find and interpret. Cohabitation rates, by their nature, are difficult to estimate. The quality of data on divorce varies from state to state. However, researchers in the area all point to a sex ratio discrepancy of this magnitude after gray divorce.)
- Men prefer to repartner with younger women, older women often prefer to retain their autonomy at this age and are unwilling to to adopt another caring role. (Correct. Both reasons have been confirmed by other research in the area.)
A: Men prefer to repartner with younger women, older women often prefer to retain their autonomy at this age and are unwilling to to adopt another caring role.

Q: Papernow (2018) claims that reconstituted families after a “gray divorce” with adult children may encounter more difficulties blending together than younger parents/step-parents with younger children. What is a contributing factor for this?
- Mutual trust and understanding cannot develop in step-parent/ adult child relationships (Incorrect. They can of course. The crucial factor is the time that the previous family culture has had to entrench, and the memories and practices which coalesce around it.)
- Adult children may verbalize their objections to the step-parent in a more straightforward fashion. (Incorrect. There is some research which suggests the contrary. That is, that adult children may suppress their feelings of animosity towards a step-parent on the basis, that, as adults, they should accept the situation. This can lead to even greater difficulties.)
- Adult children may experience a clash of loyalties more deeply. (Incorrect. There is no evidence that this is the case, though they may be experienced in just as intense a fashion, and may be further complicated if, for example, they have children of their own. There are of course issues around estate planning and elder care as well to be negotiated.)
- Relationships, and previously patterns of interaction have formed over a longer period of time (Correct. Papernow argues that all the difficulties with young step families are present, but further exacerbated by the extra time that these relationships have had to ossify.)
A: Relationships, and previously patterns of interaction have formed over a longer period of time