Title: Early Childhood
Course: Question Banks

Q: Devin is 4, and his little sister, Carmela, is 8 months. How will Devin’s appetite likely differ from that of his infant sister?
- Children in early childhood have more of an appetite than infants. (Incorrect. Children in early childhood tend to have smaller appetites than they did in infancy.)
- Appetite remains constant from infancy into early childhood. (Incorrect. Children in early childhood tend to have smaller appetites than they did in infancy.)
- Children are all so different that it is impossible to compare appetites in children across infancy and early childhood. (Although it is true that all children are different, there is a general trend for most children to have smaller appetites in early childhood than they did as infants.)
- Children in early childhood have less of an appetite than infants. (Correct. Children in early childhood tend to have smaller appetites than they did as infants.)
A: Children in early childhood have less of an appetite than infants.

Q: Sam is 3 years old, and his brother, Dan is 2 years old. What is Sam likely to have that Dan does not?
- Perfect 20/20 vision (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Many children have 20/20 vision by age 4, but not by age)
- The physical proportions of a child. (Incorrect. Although children experience growth during this time, most 3 year olds still have physical proportions similar to those of a baby.)
- The physical proportions of an adult. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. These physical proportions usually aren't achieved until a bit later in development.)
- All of his primary teeth. (Correct! By age 3, most children have all of their primary teeth.)
A: All of his primary teeth.

Q: Jenna is 6 years old, and her sister Anna is 3 years old. How are Jenna's physical proportions likely to differ from those of Anna?
- Jenna is likely to have more baby fat. (Incorrect. Remember, children tend to lose their baby fat as they progress through early childhood development.)
- Jenna is likely to have a smaller torso. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. This would actually be more characteristic of a younger child.)
- Jenna and Anna's physical proportions are likely to be the same. (Incorrect. Remember, physical proportions change quite a bit during these early years.)
- Jenna is likely to have a longer torso. (Correct! By age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of an adult.)
A: Jenna is likely to have a longer torso.

Q: Janet is the mother of a 6 year old. She is looking for a way to decrease his risk of obesity. Which of the following is likely to help her do this?
- Use food as a behavior bride. (Incorrect. Remember, using food as a bribe is actually not advised because it teaches children that one type of food (e.g. the sweet desert-type foods) are better than others.)
- Increase his fruit juice intake. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, increasing a child's fruit juice consumption actually puts them at a higher risk of obesity. It is advised to offer fresh fruit and vegetables instead of juice.)
- Use food as a reinforcement. (Incorrect. Using food as a reinforcement is actually not advised because it teaches children that one type of food is better than another. It can also encourage them to find ways around eating the foods they are trying to avoid, and still get the food they want (usually the desert-type food).)
- Increase his water consumption. (Correct! Increasing water consumption has been found to potentially decrease obesity risk by 31%.)
A: Increase his water consumption.

Q: Sam is 15 and his cousin, John, is 4. How are John's taste preferences likely to differ from those of his older brother?
- John's taste preferences are likely to be more established. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, taste preferences are developing during early childhood. This is why it is important to establish good eating habits early, and encourage children to eat healthy foods.)
- John's taste preferences are likely to be the same as Sam's. (Incorrect. Remember, children's taste preferences tend to change to at least some extent between early childhood and later years.)
- Taste preferences have to relevance to age, so this is impossible to predict. (Incorrect. Remember, although there are certainly differences between individual children and situations, there does tend to be a relationship between taste preferences and age.)
- John's taste preferences are likely to be less established. (Correct! Taste preferences are generally established during early childhood, becoming more stable in later years. This is why it is important to encourage children to eat healthy foods while limiting sweet and salty foods.)
A: John's taste preferences are likely to be less established.

Q: Shaelynn is a 4 year old girl. Mealtimes in her house tend to be negative, and often involve tensions and her parents arguing. How is this likely to affect Shaelynn?
- She is likely to learn to block out the negative atmosphere. (Incorrect. Although some children may be able to do this to some extent, it is not a common occurrence.)
- The atmosphere at mealtime is not likely to have any affect on her. (Incorrect. Remember, mealtime atmosphere plays an important role in a child's eating habits and attitudes toward food.)
- The effects of the negative atmosphere will only be short-term. (Incorrect. Although this may be true for some situations, it is generally not the case. The effects of a negative mealtime atmosphere tend to be long-term, often affecting children for years to come.)
- She is likely to develop problems eating and digesting food due to stress. (Correct! Negative mealtime atmospheres can induce stress in children, and eventually cause them to experience issues with eating and digesting food properly.)
A: She is likely to develop problems eating and digesting food due to stress.

Q: The processes of myelination and synaptic pruning make neural processing ________ and ________ complex.
- slower; more
- slower; less (Incorrect. Myelination and synaptic pruning actually allow for faster and more complex neural processing.)
- slower; more (Incorrect. While myelination and synaptic pruning allow for more complex neural processing, they also allow for that processing to be faster.)
- faster; more (Correct. Myelination and synaptic pruning make neural processing allow for neural processing that is faster and more complex.)
A: faster; more

Q: The area of the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think, strategize, and control emotions is the ________.
- myelination (Incorrect. Myelination is a process, not an area of the brain.)
- corpus callosum (Incorrect. The corpus callosum helps the two hemispheres of the brain communicate.)
- dendrites (Incorrect. The dendrites are structures of neurons, not areas of the brain.)
- prefrontal cortex (Correct. The prefrontal cortex is located behind the forehead and helps us to think, strategize, and control emotions.)
A: prefrontal cortex

Q: Angela is 7 years old, and her little sister, Maurya is 2 years old. How are Angela's visual pathways likely to differ from those of her sister?
- Angela's visual pathways are likely to be less mature, allowing her illustrations to more clearly reflect what she visualizes. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, as children progress through early childhood, their visual pathways mature with them.)
- There is no way to predict this, because visual pathway development depends on the individual child and his/her situation. (Incorrect. Although there is certainly some variation between individual children, there are still general trends that the majority tend to follow.)
- Angela's visual pathways are not likely to be different from those of her sister. (Incorrect. Remember, children's visual pathways change as they progress through early childhood, so those of a 7 year old would be different from those of a 2 year old.)
- Angela's visual pathways are likely to be more mature, allowing her illustrations to more clearly reflect what she visualizes. (Correct! As children progress through this developmental stage, their visual pathways become more mature, which allows them to better connect what they visualize in their minds and what they draw.)
A: Angela's visual pathways are likely to be more mature, allowing her illustrations to more clearly reflect what she visualizes.

Q: Gross motor skills involve ________, while fine motor skills involve ________.
- exact movements of fingers and hands; large muscle groups (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, gross motor skills are more general than fine motor skills.)
- the muscular system; the respiratory system (Incorrect. Gross motor skills and fine motor skills both involve the muscle movement.)
- the respiratory system; the muscular system (Incorrect. Remember, respiration is an automatic function, not a voluntary use of muscles.)
- large muscle groups; exact movements of fingers and hands (Correct! Gross motor skills are more general, involving the voluntary movement of large muscle groups, while fine motor skills are more exact movements of fingers and hands, including the ability to grasp objects.)
A: large muscle groups; exact movements of fingers and hands

Q: ________ is gross motor skill, while ________ is a fine motor skill.
- Walking; running (Incorrect. Remember, only gross motor skills involve the voluntary use of large muscle groups. Fine motor skills are more specialized.)
- writing; coloring (Incorrect. Remember, only fine motor skills involve specialized movements of the fingers and hands.)
- Breathing; blinking (Incorrect. Remember, both gross and fine motor skills refer to voluntary movements. Brathing and blinking are something we do automatically.)
- Walking; coloring (Correct! Walking involves the voluntary movement of large muscle groups, making a gross motor skill, while coloring involves more exact movements of the hands and fingers, making it a fine motor skill.)
A: Walking; coloring

Q: Sam is 3 years old, and many of the shows she watches provide opportunities for viewers to jump and dance. Which type of motor skill development does this promote?
- Fine motor skills. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, fine motor skills involve specialized movements of fingers and hands.)
- Respiration. (Incorrect. Remember, motor skills involve voluntary movement. Respiration is not voluntary, it is automatic.)
- Sleep. (Incorrect. Remember, motor skills involve voluntary movement, and sleep is automatic.)
- Gross motor skills. (Correct! Gross motor skills involve the voluntary use of large muscle groups, which both jumping and dancing utilize.)
A: Gross motor skills.

Q: Children in kindergarten are usually between 4 and 6 years of age. Which one of Piaget's developmental stages does this coincide with?
- Sensorimotor. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, the sensorimotor stage typically occurs between 0 and 2 years.)
- Concrete Operational. (Incorrect. Remember, the concrete operational stage typically occurs between 7 and 11 years.)
- Formal Operational. (Incorrect. The formal operational stage actually tends to begin during adolescence and continue throughout adulthood. It is the final developmental stage of Piaget's theory.)
- Preoperational. (Correct! Piaget's preoperational stage typically occurs between 2 and 7 years of age.)
A: Preoperational.

Q: Sam is 4 years old, and she is learning to utilize language effectively and think about the world symbolically. Which of Piaget's developmental stages is sam currently in?
- Sensorimotor. (Incorrect. The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to 2 years. If Sam is 4 years old, she would be finished with this stage.)
- Concrete operational. (Incorrect. Remember, Piaget's concrete operational stage occurs from ages 7-11. If Sam is 4 years old, she would not be at this stage yet.)
- Formal operational. (Incorrect. Remember, Piaget's formal operational stage begins around age 12 and continues throughout adulthood. If Sam is 4 years old she would not be at this stage yet.)
- Preoperational. (Correct! During the preoperational stage of development children tend to develop their language skills and learn to think about the world symbolically.)
A: Preoperational.

Q: Jake is 4 years old, and learning to use language and think about the world symbolically. His older sister Jaimie is 13 years old, and progressing into puberty. Jake's younger sister, Taylor, just turned a year old. Which of these children - Jake, Jaimie, or Taylor - are considered to be in the preoperational stage of development according to Piaget's theory?
- Jaimie (Incorrect. Remember, according to Piaget's theory, individuals ages 12 and older are actually in the formal operational stage that lasts throughout adulthood.)
- Taylor (Incorrect. Remember, according to Piaget's theory, individuals ages 0 to 2 years are actually in the sensorimotor stage.)
- None of them (Incorrect. Remember, Piaget's theory of development involves four stages that the individual progresses through beginning at birth. The final stage that lasts throughout adulthood begins in at age 12.)
- Jake (Correct! The preoperational stage occurs between ages 2 and 7, and involves language acquisition as well as developing the ability to think about the world symbolically.)
A: Jake

Q: Karen is 4 years old, and she often assumes that everyone shares the same perspective as her. This limitation in early childhood thinking is known as:
- Animism (Incorrect. Remember, animism is actually the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities.)
- Conservation (Incorrect. Remember, conservation is actually the awareness that altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.)
- Centration (Incorrect. Remember, centration is actually the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation while disregarding all others.)
- Egocentrism (Correct! Egocentrism is the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as they do.)
A: Egocentrism

Q: Michael is 3 years old, and while playing outside he falls and scrapes his knee. When his grandmother later asks him what happened, he tells her that the driveway was being mean and made him fall. Which limitation of childhood thinking does this belief reflect?
- Egocentrism (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, egocentrism is actually the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as they do.)
- Conservation (Incorrect. Remember, conservation is actually the awareness that altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.)
- Centration (Incorrect. Remember, centration is actually the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation while disregarding all others.)
- Animism (Correct! Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities.)
A: Animism

Q: Young children tend to lack the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. What is this awareness called?
- Animism. (Incorrect. Remember, animism is actually the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities.)
- Centration. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, centration is actually the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation while disregarding all others.)
- Egocentrism. (Incorrect. Remember, egocentrism is actually the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as they do.)
- Conservation. (Correct! Conservation refers to the awareness that young children tend to lack regarding the consistency of basic properties in the midst of appearance changes.)
A: Conservation.

Q: The theory of mind is:
- the understanding that the mind is comprised of biological structures and various chemicals. (Incorrect. Remember, the theory of mind does not focus on the biological make up of the brain or central nervous system.)
- the understanding that the mind creates memories that are almost exact pictures of what happened. (Incorrect. Remember, the creation and storage of memories is not central to the theory of mind. It is also important to note that memories are often not completely accurate pictures; they are influenced by many factors and they are actively constructed.)
- the understanding that cognition changes throughout childhood and subsequent stages of development. (Incorrect. Although it is true that cognition changes throughout childhood and later stages of development, this is not a focus of the theory of mind.)
- the understanding that the mind holds people's beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions. (Correct! The theory of mind is the understanding that beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions are part of the mind. It also includes the understanding that the mind is not always accurate.)
A: the understanding that the mind holds people's beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions.

Q: Kayla is 3 years old. Her teacher shows her a crayon box and asks her what she thinks is inside. She says, "crayons." The teacher opens the box, showing Kayla that there is chalk inside. She asks Kayla again what she thought was in the box at first, and Kayla says, "chalk." The teacher does the same thing with Mitch, who is 5 years old. After seeing the chalk, when asked what he thought was in the box at first, he says, "crayons." Based on their responses, which child (Kayla or Mitch) has started to develop theory of mind?
- Kayla. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Kayla does not understand that her initial thought could be wrong, which suggests that her understanding of theory of mind has not developed yet. In addition, Kayla is 3 years old, which is generally before theory of mind begins to develop.)
- Both. (Incorrect. Kayla and Mitch demonstrate different levels of cognitive development. One has started to develop theory of mind while the other has not.)
- Neither. (Incorrect. One child's responses reflect initial theory of mind development, while the other's do not.)
- Mitch. (Correct! Mitch had demonstrated an understanding that it's possible for thoughts to be incorrect. This is reflective of the theory of mind.)
A: Mitch.

Q: Which of the following disorders involves delayed or lacking development of theory of mind?
- Depression. (Incorrect. Depression is a mood disorder that is not usually associated with delayed development of theory of mind.)
- Bipolar disorder. (Incorrect. Bipolar disorder is characterized by alternating episodes of extreme mania and depression, and is not associated with delayed development of theory of mind.)
- Schizophrenia. (Incorrect. Schizophrenia varies significantly in symptomatology, including auditory and visual hallucinations, but is not associated with delayed development of theory of mind.)
- Autism. (Correct! Autism is characterized by communication deficits, as well as difficulty predicting other people's behavior. Individuals with autism have difficulty understanding the theory of mind, and may be unable to recognize that initial thoughts can be inaccurate.)
A: Autism.

Q: Kayla is 4 years old. She learns new words by connecting them to concepts that she already understands. What is this process called?
- Overregularization (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Overregularization actually refers to the overuse of certain grammar rules in speech.)
- Private speech (Incorrect. Remember, private speech actually refers to speech that the individual says to him or herself.)
- Scaffolding (Incorrect. Scaffolding actually refers to a process in which a guide provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned, perhaps by repeating what the child has said but in a grammatically correct way.)
- Fast-mapping (Correct! Fast-mapping is a way in which children learn new words by connecting them to concepts they already understand.)
A: Fast-mapping

Q: Danny is 5 years old. He has been taught in school that adding an "ed" to the end of a word means it's past tense, or something that's already happened. After learning this, Danny begins applying the rule to all words, even those that are supposed to be exceptions. What is this called?
- Fast-mapping (Incorrect. Fast-mapping is actually a way in which children learn new words by connecting them to concepts they already understand.)
- Scaffolding. (Incorrect. Scaffolding is actually a process in which a guide provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned, perhaps by repeating what the child has said but in a grammatically correct way.)
- Proximal development. (Incorrect. Proximal development is actually called Zone of proximal development, and according to Vygotsky's theory is refers to the range of material a child is ready to learn if proper support and guidance are provided.)
- Overregulation. (Correct! Overregulation occurs when a child applies a grammar rule in situations where it should not be applied. The child at this point understands the rule, but has not fully grasped that there are exceptions.)
A: Overregulation.

Q: Melanie and Lucas are both 4 years old. Melanie comes from a family of high socioeconomic status (SES), while Lucas comes from a family of low SES. According to research by Hart and Risley, why is it likely that these two children will experience different academic outcomes in school?
- Children from high SES families are exposed to fewer words than children from low SES families, and therefore have an advantage when starting school. (Incorrect. Hart and Risley actually interpreted their research to imply that high SES children are exposed to more words than low SES children, and this puts them at an advantage in school.)
- Children from high SES families are exposed to better use of linguistics than children from low SES families, which gives them an advantage when starting school. (Incorrect. Although exposure to better linguistics may certainly be a factor in academic outcomes, remember that Hart and Risley's research focused on word exposure during childhood, specifically the number of words children are exposed to daily.)
- Children from high SES families are exposed to better nutrition than children from low SES families, which gives them an advantage when starting school. (Incorrect. Although exposure to better nutrition may certainly be a factor in academic outcomes, remember that Hart and Risley's research focused on word exposure during childhood, specifically the number of words children are exposed to daily.)
- Children from high SES families are exposed to more words than children from low SES families, and therefore have an advantage when starting school. (Correct! Although not accepted by all scholars, Hart and Risley interpreted their research to imply that low SES children are exposed to fewer words than high SES children, and this puts them at a disadvantage in school.)
A: Children from high SES families are exposed to more words than children from low SES families, and therefore have an advantage when starting school.

Q: Edgar can sound out most three-letter words, but when he sees a long eight-letter word, he turns to his teacher instead of trying to sound it out. His teacher encourages him to go ahead and try to sound it out by breaking it down into two parts. According to Vygotsky, Edgar
- is engaged in egocentric speech. (Incorrect. While Edgar may sound things out or talk to himself during the learning process, that does not fit this situation.)
- needs to practice his language overregularization. (Incorrect. This term applies to the process in learning a language in which children overgeneralize rules to words where the rule is not applicable.)
- is developing his fast-mapping skills. (Incorrect. Fast-mapping may help Edgar learn new words quickly, but it is not the best term given this situation.)
- is in the zone of proximal development. (Correct! Edgar is in the zone where he is ready to learn bigger words, but need a bit of scaffolding from his teacher.)
A: is in the zone of proximal development.

Q: Ruben is a middle school teacher. He spend a great deal of energy thinking about how to get his budding scientists to work on challenging tasks that they can’t easily do on their own, but they can do with the help of their peers. Ruben is relying on which psychological concept?
- egocentric speech (Incorrect. While egocentric speech may be helpful to young learners, it does not fit this situation.)
- fast-mapping (Incorrect: Fast-mapping may help Edgar learn new words quickly, but it is not the best term given this situation.)
- overregularization (Incorrect. This term applies to the process in learning a language in which children overgeneralize rules to words where the rule is not applicable.)
- the zone of proximal development (Correct. In the ZPD, students may struggle with a concept along but can do it with scaffolding or help from others.)
A: the zone of proximal development

Q: Molly views herself as a kind and generous person, who is empathetic towards others and capable of helping others in need. This is Molly's:
- Social self. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Social self actually refers to how others conceptualize an individual, or who an individual is to others.)
- Looking-glass self. (Incorrect. Remember, looking glass self involves looking at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make self judgements.)
- Exaggerated sense of self. (Incorrect. Remember, an exaggerated sense of self refers to exaggerated perceptions of an individual's own abilities, commonly made by young children before they come to understand their abilities and limitations.)
- Self-concept. (Correct! Self-concept is an individual's idea of self, including what he or she is capable of doing, as well as how he or she thinks and feels.)
A: Self-concept.

Q: Which of the following describes Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self?
- After being told by others that she is an outgoing person, Jessica begins to see herself the opposite way. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, the looking-glass self does not suggest that self-concept develops opposite to what we hear about ourselves from others.)
- After being told by her mother that she is outgoing, Jessica immediately sees herself the same way. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Developing a sense of self based on how one important person views us actually coincides with Mead's theory of the socialized self.)
- After being told by her mother that she is outgoing, Jessica immediately sees herself the opposite way. (Incorrect. Developing a sense of self based on how one important person views us is reflective of Mead's theory of the socialized self. Remember, however, this theory actually suggested that an individual's self-concept develops to align with how this important person views him or her.)
- After being told by many other individuals that she is an outgoing person, Jessica begins to see herself the same way. (Correct! The looking-glass self suggests that our self-concept develops by looking at how others seem to view us, and interpreting this as we make self-judgements.)
A: After being told by many other individuals that she is an outgoing person, Jessica begins to see herself the same way.

Q: According to Mead's "I and me" theory, how does the "I" differ from the "me?"
- The "I" is the social definition of the individual, while the "me" is spontaneous, creative, and innate. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, Mead's theory associated the "I" with creativity.)
- The "I" is how an individual views him or herself, while the "me" is how a single important person views him or her. (Incorrect. Remember, the way in which a single important person views the individual actually refers to the socialized self.)
- The "I" is how a single important person view an individual, while the "me" is how the individual views him or herself. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember the way in which a single important person views the individual is actually called the socialized self.)
- The "I" is spontaneous, creative, and innate, while the "me" is the social definition of the individual. (Correct! In Mead's theory, the self has two parts - the "I," which is spontaneous, creative, and innate, and the "me," which is how others define the individual.)
A: The "I" is spontaneous, creative, and innate, while the "me" is the social definition of the individual.

Q: Jovie is 2 and her older brother Chris is 5. Which of Freud's stages do these children fit into?
- Jovie is in the phallic stage, while Chris is in the anal stage. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, these stages occur in a different order, according to Freud.)
- They are both in the anal stage. (Incorrect. According to Freud's theory, children of ages 2 and 5 years are considered to be in different stages of development.)
- They are both in the phallic stage. (Incorrect. Remember, Children of these ages fall into different developmental stages within Freud's theory.)
- Jovie is in the anal stage, while Chris is in the phallic stage. (Correct! According to Freud's theory, the anal stage lasts from 18 months until the child is three years old, while the phallic stage lasts from ages three to six.)
A: Jovie is in the anal stage, while Chris is in the phallic stage.

Q: Kodi is 4 years old. Throughout potty training his parents have been harsh and ridiculed him often for mistakes. According to Freud's theory, which of the following is Kodi likely to be as an adult?
- Messy, wasteful, and harsh. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. According to Freud's theory, children who grow up to be messy, wasteful, and harsh tend to come from situations where parents are too easy going during potty training. Freud referred to this as anal expulsive.)
- Hyper, loud, and goal oriented. (Incorrect. These characteristics are not produced by either parenting style during potty training according to Freud's theory.)
- Sluggish, quiet, and lazy. (Incorrect. According to Freud's theory, these traits were not associated with parenting styles during potty training.)
- Stubborn, neat, and stingy. (Correct! Freud theorized that the children of parents who are harsh during potty training and ridicule mistakes will become anal retentive, which is characterized by being stubborn, neat, and stingy.)
A: Stubborn, neat, and stingy.

Q: Dan is 5 years old, and progressing through Freud's phallic stage of development. When he uses proper manners, such as saying please and thank you, he notices that his parents are happy, so he uses proper manners more often. When he leaves his toys out after playing with them, he notices that his parents are not happy, so he avoids doing this in order to avoid loss of love. What did Freud call this process?
- Introspection. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Introspection is actually the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes.)
- Oedipus complex. (Incorrect. Remember, the Oedipus complex actually refers to the attraction that boys develop during the phallic stage for the opposite sex parent (the mother).)
- Electra complex. (Incorrect. Remember, the Electra complex actually refers to the attraction that girls develop during the phallic stage for the opposite sex parent (the father).)
- Introjection. (Correct! Introjection is the process through which a child develops values based on those of others, and this process is facilitated through perceived approval and disapproval.)
A: Introjection.

Q: Which of the following reflect what Erikson believed to be the main influence on personality development?
- Perceptions of the self. (Incorrect. Although perceptions of the self are involved in several of Erikson's stages of development, his theory does not maintain this to be the primary basis for personality development.)
- Trust in a primary caregiver. (Incorrect. Although this is the main component of one of Erikson's stages of development, his theory did not place it as the main influence on personality development.)
- Development of a self identity. (Incorrect. Although this is the focus of one of Erikson's stages of development, it was not what he believed to be the main influence on personality development.)
- Relationships with other individuals. (Correct! Erikson's psychosocial theory of personality development is based on the idea that our interpersonal relationships are what most affects the way that our personality develops.)
A: Relationships with other individuals.

Q: Jenna is 4 years old, and is beginning to think of her own ideas and initiate action. Which of Erikson's stages of development is she in?
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, this stage typically lasts from ages 1-3 years and is characterized by the child beginning to show clear preferences for certain parts of their environment such as food and toys.)
- Trust vs. mistrust. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, this stage typically lasts from birth to 12 months of age and is characterized by the child developing the sense that adults can be trusted.)
- Industry vs. inferiority. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, this stage typically lasts from ages 6-12 years and is characterized by the child beginning to compare his or herself to peers.)
- Initiative vs. guilt. (Correct! This is the stage of development in Erikson's theory in which children begin to come up with their own ideas and take initiative to do things and explore on their own. It typically begins at age 3 and lasts until age 6.)
A: Initiative vs. guilt.

Q: Mike is 5 years old, and often comes up with new things to do and try, such as building forts in the living room with couch cushions. His older brother, Lucas, is a teenager who is struggling to develop his own self-identity. Which of the brothers would Erikson classify as being in the initiative vs. guilt stage of development?
- Lucas. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, under Erikson's theory, teenagers who are developing self identities and clarify social roles are classified in the identity vs. role confusion stage.)
- Mike and Lucas. (Incorrect. Mike and Lucas are experiencing different challenges that are associated with different stages of development in Erikson's theory.)
- Neither Mike or Lucas. (Incorrect. At least one of the brothers would be classified by Erikson as being within the initiative vs. guilt stage.)
- Mike. (Correct! The initiative vs. guilt stage of development is characterized by the child learning to plan and achieve goals, as well as initiating action.)
A: Mike.

Q: Sadid is 2 years old and his older sister, Jenn, is 5 years old. While they're playing one day, Jenn puts a barrette in Sadid's hair. Sadid gets upset and states that he doesn't want to be a girl, and that he likes being a boy. Jenn laughs because she understands that putting the barrette in Sadid's hair did not make him a girl. What has Jenn achieved that Sadid has not?
- Gender identity. (Incorrect. Remember, gender identity actually refers to the gender that an individual recognizes as his or her gender.)
- Gender roles. (Incorrect. Remember, gender roles refer to the behaviors and tasks associated with a particular gender.)
- Gender Stereotyping. (Incorrect. Gender stereotyping is actually the overgeneralization about the attitudes, traits, or behaviors of men or women.)
- Gender constancy. (Correct! Gender constancy refers to the understanding that superficial changes do not mean gender has actually changed.)
A: Gender constancy.

Q: Deion, who is 4 years old, is very surprised when he meets a woman firefighter who comes to his school. He tells her that he thought only men were firefighters. What does this reflect?
- Gender constancy. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, gender constancy actually refers to the understanding that superficial changes do not mean that gender has actually changed.)
- Gender identity. (Incorrect. Gender identity actually refers to the gender that an individual recognizes as his or her gender. This is not necessarily the same as physical gender.)
- Gender roles. (Incorrect. Gender roles are actually the behaviors and tasks associated with a particular gender. They often provide a framework for daily routines and tasks assigned to individuals.)
- Gender stereotyping. (Correct! Gender stereotyping refers to the overgeneralization about the attitudes, traits, or behaviors of men or women.)
A: Gender stereotyping.

Q: In a pre-k classroom, children are allowed time to play with toys throughout the day. The teacher encourages the girls to play with dolls, and the boys to play with toy trucks. Which of the following concepts does this reflect?
- Gender constancy. (Incorrect. Remember, gender constancy is actually the understanding that superficial changes do not mean gender has actually changed.)
- Gender identity. (Incorrect. Remember, gender identity is actually the gender that an individual recognizes as his or her gender.)
- Gender stereotyping. (Incorrect. It looks like you got mixed up. Remember, gender stereotyping is actually the overgeneralization about the attitudes, traits, or behaviors of men or women. Although this sounds a bit like what is described here, it is important to remember that gender stereotyping refers is done by the child, not the adults in the child's environment.)
- Gender role socialization. (Correct! Gender role socialization refers to the ways in which individuals in the child's social environment send messages about acceptable gender-related behavior.)
A: Gender role socialization.

Q: Children raised with this parenting style may fail to learn self-discipline and develop uncertainty toward boundaries.
- Authoritarian (Incorrect. Authoritarian parenting is strict, with high levels of control and low levels of responsiveness. Children reared with this parenting style may learn to fear parents as authority figures.)
- Authoritative (Incorrect. Authoritative parenting combines high levels of control with a high level of responsiveness. Children raised under this model tend to learn boundaries and a sense of personal autonomy.)
- Uninvolved (Incorrect. Uninvolved parents are disengaged, undemanding, and non-responsive. Children raised by uninvolved parents may develop discipline problems and trouble relating to peers.)
- Permissive (Correct! Often, permissive parents attempt to be their children’s friend rather than an authority figure, so children in this situation may fail to learn how to properly self-discipline, and may have trouble learning boundaries.)
A: Permissive

Q: Critics of the “participation trophy” effect in children’s activities that praise all children’s efforts oppose which parenting style posed by Lemasters and Defrain?
- Athletic coach style (Incorrect. The athletic coach parenting style helps children build strategies for success, while setting expectations and rules.)
- The martyr (Incorrect. Martyrdom in parenting is the idea that everything the parent does is for the benefit of the child, and often uses guilt as a compliance tactic.)
- Police officer/drill sergeant (Incorrect. This type of parenting is very similar to Baumrind’s authoritarian model. The drill sergeant/ police officer parent sets expectations that the child must meet without flexibility, not allowing personal decision-making.)
- Teacher-counselor. (Correct! The teacher/counseling style of parenting follows parenting advice as a formula for a perfect child. This parenting style views any difficulties the child has as a parental setback, and the parents may overuse praise to try and enhance the child’s self-esteem and performance.)
A: Teacher-counselor.

Q: Which of Baumrind’s parenting styles involves parents who hold high expectations for their children but are also responsive to their children’s needs?
- authoritarian (Authoritarian parenting involves high demands and expectations, with little warmth or responsiveness.)
- martyrdom (Incorrect. Lemasters and Defrain defined the martyr parenting persona as the ultimate self-sacrificer, who does everything for his/her children, even tasks the child should do unassisted.)
- permissive (Incorrect. The permissive parenting style allows children latitude, with little to no control. Warmth and responsiveness are high.)
- authoritative (Correct! The authoritative parenting style is marked by high expectations or demands on children, balanced with warmth and responsiveness.)
A: authoritative

Q: In operant conditioning, which is the most effective method of teaching a behavior?
- negative reinforcement (Incorrect. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. While people are motivated by the desire to have something unpleasant stop, people learn more quickly when rewarded.)
- positive punishment (Incorrect. Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior’s reoccurrence. Reinforcement is generally more effective than punishment.)
- negative punishment (Incorrect. Negative punishment involves removing something in order to decrease a behavior’s likelihood.)
- positive reinforcement (Correct! Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant to increase the probability of a behavior’s reoccurrence. This is a highly effective behavioral modification tool.)
A: positive reinforcement

Q: Mike slapped his brother, so his mother places him in “time out” to reconsider his actions. What operant conditioning principle does this use?
- negative reinforcement (Time out qualifies as negative, because it removes the child from play, but the goal is to reduce the inciting behavior, not increase it.)
- positive punishment (Incorrect. Time out is a form of punishment because it aims to reduce the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. Nothing is added in time out, though; even the name implies something (time) is being taken away, so time out is a negative principle.)
- positive reinforcement (Incorrect. Positive reinforcement adds something in order to increase a behavior’s likelihood; time out takes away something positive (play) to decrease a behavior’s likelihood.)
- negative punishment (Correct! Negative punishment takes something away in order to decrease the likelihood of that behavior. Time out is a prime example of negative punishment.)
A: negative punishment

Q: A sticker chart designed to reward a child for every ten stickers earned for doing household chores is an example of what?
- negative reinforcement (Incorrect. Negative reinforcement takes away an aversive stimulus in order to increase a behavior. If the child gained stickers or received a reduced number of chores depending on behavior, then negative reinforcement could be part of this behavior modification task.)
- positive conditioning (Incorrect. A sticker chart is an example of a token economy, a positive reinforcement tool in operant conditioning.)
- a time out schedule (Incorrect. Time out schedules operate on negative punishment.)
- a token economy (Correct! A token economy is a positive reinforcement tool; the child gets a sticker for performing a desired chore, for which they receive a sticker. Once the child earns ten stickers, the child gets a more substantial reward, such as a piece of candy.)
A: a token economy

Q: Which of the following situations is most likely to be a positive stressor and learning experience?
- the death of a grandparent (Incorrect. The death of a family member is more than a passing, mild stress. For a young child, they may have no other experience with death, so this event would likely be a trying, tolerable stressful experience.)
- lack of sufficient nutrition on a daily basis (Incorrect. A child lacking basic nutritional needs is experiencing chronic, toxic stress.)
- parental divorce and custody changes (Incorrect. Family changes are likely to be a significant stressor in a child’s life. This is generally considered a tolerable stress, to which children adapt and adjust, but sometimes the degree of change and instability can become toxic stress.)
- meeting a new friend and forming a connection (Correct! The experience of making a new social connection can be stressful, but this stress is positive and helps children build resilience and become accustomed to mild to moderate stressors.)
A: meeting a new friend and forming a connection

Q: Steven’s mom just lost her job and she’s not sure how she’s going to make ends meet. Lately, Steven hasn’t had much reassurance he’ll get enough food to eat on a daily basis. What type of stress is this most likely to be?
- tolerable stress (Incorrect. Tolerable stressors are those which can be buffered by parental support and resilience; food insecurity is a much more toxic form of stress, with long-lasting effects.)
- sositive stress (Incorrect. A child experiencing food insecurity is in no way a positive stressor.)
- indirect stress (Incorrect. Indirect stress is not a term associated with stress levels; individuals often experience stress from events that do not directly impact their body.)
- toxic stress (Correct! Food insecurity is a toxic stressor with lasting physical and psychological effects)
A: toxic stress

Q: Negative, stressful events in childhood that have profound and lasting sociological, psychological, and physiological effects are referred to as what?
- generalized stress triggers (Incorrect. Generalized stress triggers are not specific to childhood, and many stressors don’t produce lasting effects.)
- food insecurity (Incorrect. Food insecurity is an adverse childhood experience, which can have lasting effects. The term adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), includes food insecurity and other adverse experiences.)
- tolerable stress (Incorrect. Tolerable stressful experiences impact a child’s life for a period of time, but are not likely to produce pervasive ill effects.)
- adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) (Correct. In research and literature, traumatic childhood events are commonly referred to as ACEs. Health exams often contain screenings for ACEs.)
A: adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)