Title: Theories in Lifespan Development
Course: Question Banks

Q: A graduate student is considering topics for a Master’s thesis. The graduate advisor recommends: “There are several sets of well-developed ideas about that topic. You must first review their explanations and use that to make predictions for your research.” The graduate advisor is recommending that the student review ________.”
- hypotheses (You may be thinking that the hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. In this case, the advisor is recommending that the student review something else before arriving at hypotheses. Also, keep in mind that hypotheses are often worded as if-then statements.)
- research (Incorrect. You may be thinking that a graduate student working on a Master’s thesis is likely to review the literature or existing research on a topic. Here you are asked to think more specifically about the term that refers to a set of well-developed ideas that attempts to explain observable events in a meaningful way.)
- observations (Incorrect. While some studies are based on data gathered from observations, in this case, you are asked to think more specifically about the term that refers to a set of well-developed ideas that attempts to explain observable events in a meaningful way.)
- theories (Correct! A theory is a set of well-developed ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena, which can be used to make predictions about future observations.)
A: theories

Q: “If parents use an authoritative parenting style, then their children will be more well-adjusted psychologically than children of parents who use permissive or authoritarian parenting styles.” This statement is an example of a ________.
- theory (Incorrect. A theory is a set of well-developed ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena, which can be used to make predictions about future observations.)
- research study (Incorrect. While the statement above would be presented as part of a larger research study, consider a more specific term used to describe testable predictions that researchers present before collecting or analyzing data.)
- observation (Incorrect. Keep in mind that the statement above is written in future tense, in the form of a prediction. While some studies are based on data gathered from observations, consider the specific term that refers to testable predictions that researchers present before collecting or analyzing data.)
- hypothesis (Correct! Hypotheses are often worded as if-then statements. The hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory.)
A: hypothesis

Q: A research advisor tells a graduate student, “Now that you have developed hypotheses based on a theory, you can ________ to test your hypotheses.”
- perform observations (Incorrect. You may be thinking that observational methods may be used to collect data. Consider the broader term for the process of scientific investigation that is used to test the hypotheses.)
- engage in scientific debate (Incorrect. Consider the term for the process of scientific investigation that is used to test the hypotheses. Theories that are difficult to test may still be useful in stimulating scientific debate.)
- generate practical applications (Incorrect. Consider the term for the process of scientific investigation that is used to test the hypotheses. Theories that are difficult to test may provide concepts that have practical application.)
- conduct research (Correct! Hypotheses grounded in theory are then tested through research or scientific investigation.)
A: conduct research

Q: Many popular quotes by famous people reference a “blank slate” as a platform and springboard for creativity. We may credit the popularity of this phrase to ________, an early scholar of human development.
- John B. Watson (Incorrect. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of the environment in human development. He believed that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning and that all behaviors are learned, or conditioned, but he is not associated with the term “blank slate.”)
- Jean Piaget (Incorrect. While Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development is considered to have revolutionized our view of children’s thinking and learning, he is not associated with the term “blank slate.”)
- Jean-Jacque Rousseau (Incorrect. Rousseau was an early scholar who influenced major theoretical traditions of developmental psychology today. He proposed that development occurs according to innate processes progressing through three stages: infancy, childhood, and adolescence. He is not associated with the term “blank slate.”)
- John Locke (Correct! Locke was an early scholar who influenced major theoretical traditions of developmental psychology today. He is credited with characterizing the mind of the newborn as a tabula rasa (or “blank slate”) on which knowledge is written through experience and learning.)
A: John Locke

Q: A child development researcher established a password for her lab computers. The password, ________, was created in honor of the person who established the first scientific journals that published child development research, and who was also the first president of the American Psychological Association.
- James Mark Baldwin (Incorrect. Baldwin conducted quantitative and experimental research on infant development. He did not establish scientific journals that published child development research, and he was not the first president of the American Psychological Association.)
- John B. Watson (Incorrect. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of the environment in human development. He believed that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning and that all behaviors are learned. He did not establish scientific journals that published child development research, and he was not the first president of the American Psychological Association.)
- Sigmund Freud (Incorrect. Freud is well-known for his model of psychosexual development, which grew out of his psychoanalytic approach to human personality and psychopathology. He did not establish scientific journals that published child development research, and he was not the first president of the American Psychological Association.)
- G. Stanley Hall (Correct! Hall focused on childhood development, adolescence, and evolutionary theory. He established scientific journals for the publication of child development research. He was also the first president of the American Psychological Association.)
A: G. Stanley Hall

Q: Current research on child development that uses one-way viewing screens and recording methods that do not disturb children are benefiting from the observational techniques first developed by ________.
- G. Stanley Hall (Incorrect. Hall focused on childhood development, adolescence, and evolutionary theory. He established scientific journals for the publication of child development research. He was also the first president of the American Psychological Association. Hall is not credited with developing observational techniques, such as one-way viewing screens.)
- James Mark Baldwin (Incorrect. While Baldwin conducted quantitative and experimental research on infant development, he is not credited with developing observational techniques, such as one-way viewing screens.)
- John B. Watson (Incorrect. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of the environment in human development. He believed that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning and that all behaviors are learned. He is not credited with developing observational techniques, such as one-way viewing screens.)
- Arnold Gesell (Correct! Gesell conducted the first large-scale detailed study of children’s behavior and developed sophisticated observational techniques, including one-way viewing screens and recording methods that did not disturb the child.)
A: Arnold Gesell

Q: A therapist, whose approach to psychotherapy is based on Sigmund Freud’s theory, explains that a patient’s problematic behavior is based on ________.
- being stuck in the developmental task of trust vs. mistrust (Incorrect. You are thinking of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Erikson did propose that if infants do not learn that adults can be trusted, this could contribute to mistrust of others in adulthood. Here you are asked to consider Freud’s theory.)
- a classically conditioned response (Incorrect. You are thinking of Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning. Here you are asked to consider Freud’s theory.)
- observational learning without consequences (Incorrect. You are likely thinking of Bandura’s work on observational learning and social cognitive (or social learning) theory. Here you are asked to consider Freud’s theory.)
- unconscious motives, fears, and anxieties (Correct! Freud proposed was that unconscious motives and desires, fears and anxieties drive our actions. He was the first person to suggest purely psychological explanations for physical problems and mental illness.)
A: unconscious motives, fears, and anxieties

Q: An infant smiles when something feels good and cries when something feels bad. The infant’s parent, a psychotherapist whose work is based on Sigmund Freud’s theory, jokes, “This baby is all id.” Which of Freud’s principles is this parent referring to?
- The reality principle (Incorrect. According to Freud, the ego operates according to the “reality principle.” The ego is the rational part of our personality that keeps us grounded in reality.)
- The neurosis principle (Incorrect. You are thinking of Freud’s concept of neurosis, which refers to a tendency to experience negative emotions when there the id, ego and superego are not balanced. For this example, consider the term that captures the ability to feel positive emotion also.)
- The oral principle (Incorrect. You may be thinking that, according to Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, an infant is in the oral stage. This means that the infant explores the world through the mouth and meets needs primarily through oral gratification (e.g., sucking or chewing on any object that comes close to the mouth). While infants are focused on immediate gratification during this stage, the term oral principle is not used.)
- The pleasure principle (The id, according to Freud, operates under the pleasure principle which means that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. The id is the part of us that wants immediate gratification.)
A: The pleasure principle

Q: McKinley does not like Parker, but McKinley treats Parker in an excessively friendly manner. Freud would say that McKinley is using the defense mechanism, ________.
- projection (Incorrect. Projection occurs when people attribute their unacceptable thoughts to others. In this case, if McKinley was scared, then McKinley would accuse Parker of being scared. Defense mechanisms are considered by Freud to be protective measures that aim to reduce anxiety.)
- rationalization (Incorrect. Rationalization is considered a cognitive distortion of the facts in order to make an event or an impulse less threatening. A mild example is making excuses. Defense mechanisms are considered by Freud to be protective measures that aim to reduce anxiety, and this particular one was named by his daughter, Anna Freud.)
- repression (Incorrect. Repression refers to going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one’s childhood and/or engaging in childlike behavior, such as thumb sucking or cuddling a favorite childhood toy.)
- reaction formation (Correct! Reaction formation refers to outwardly presenting the opposite of what you internally believe or desire. Defense mechanisms are considered by Freud to be protective measures that aim to reduce anxiety.)
A: reaction formation

Q: Parents are at an indoor playspace their five-year-old child. The parents observe the child check out the slide, then check out a play house before deciding to play on a climbing structure. According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, by allowing the child to explore within limits and by supporting the child’s choice, these parents are helping their child successfully navigate which stage of development?
- Autonomy versus Shame (Incorrect. According to Erikson, a toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. In this example, you are asked to consider the primary psychosocial task of an older, preschool child.)
- Industry versus Inferiority (Incorrect. According to Erikson, elementary school-aged children face the task of industry vs. inferiority and either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment or a sense of inadequacy. In this example, you are asked to consider the primary psychosocial task of an older, preschool child.)
- Trust versus Mistrust (Incorrect. According to Erikson, infants from birth to 12 months either learn that adults can be trusted or mistrusted to meet basic needs. In this example, you are asked to consider the primary psychosocial task of an older, preschool child.)
- Initiative versus Guilt (Correct! According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.)
A: Initiative versus Guilt

Q: A parent tells a school counselor, “I am concerned that my child has developed an inferiority complex. My child feels like he does not measure up to peers.” According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, this child may be struggling to accomplish the developmental task of the Industry versus Inferiority stage of development, which is ________.
- purpose (Incorrect. According to Erikson, purpose is the major developmental accomplishment of the initiative versus guilt stage, which applies to preschool children.)
- care (Incorrect. According to Erikson, care is the major developmental accomplishment of the generativity versus stagnation stage, which applies to adults (40 to mid-60s).)
- will (Incorrect. According to Erikson, will is the major developmental accomplishment of the autonomy versus shame stage, which applies to toddlers (1 to 3 years old).)
- competence (Correct! According to Erikson, elementary school-aged children face the task of industry vs. inferiority and either develop a sense of competence, pride, and accomplishment or a sense of inadequacy.)
A: competence

Q: Two young adult friends are talking about their dating preferences. One friend says, “I prefer to go to the movies by myself. I believe you have to know yourself and be good company for yourself before you can be good company for someone else.” Erik Erikson would agree that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. This statement describes the key developmental task in which stage of psychosocial development?
- Identity versus Role Confusion (Incorrect. You may be thinking that, according to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. That occurs in the identity versus role confusion stage. Consider the stage that comes after people have developed a sense of self in adolescence and are ready to share their lives with others.)
- Generativity versus Stagnation (Incorrect. Generativity involves finding your life’s work. Those who experience stagnation may feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way. This is a stage of middle adulthood. Consider the stage associated with young adulthood.)
- Integrity versus Despair (Incorrect. This stage applies to late adulthood (from the mid-60s to the end of life), when people reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. Consider the stage associated with young adulthood.)
- Intimacy versus Isolation (Correct! Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self (developed in adolescence) before we can develop successful intimate relationships (as young adults), and this is the major psychosocial task of the intimacy versus isolation stage.)
A: Intimacy versus Isolation

Q: When describing how difficult it is for her patients to quit smoking, a specialist in substance abuse medicine states, “Smoking is associated with so many things, like waking up in the morning, after a meal, on breaks at work, when getting home at work. When my patients try to quit, everything that was associated with smoking makes them crave a cigarette.” The specialist is describing ________.
- operant conditioning (Incorrect. In operant conditioning, people learn to associate behavior and consequences. Operant conditioning refers to a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences that occur soon after the response. In this example, consider the type of learning when a neutral stimulus (e.g., leaning on the counter) occurs just before the response (e.g., craving for a cigarette).)
- the law of effect (Incorrect. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In this example, consider the type of learning when a neutral stimulus (e.g., leaning on the counter) occurs just before the response (e.g., craving for a cigarette).)
- the Skinner Box (Incorrect. The Skinner Box refers to an operant conditioning chamber that Skinner used to conduct his experiments. He placed lab animals inside the box which contained a lever or disk that the animal could press or peck for food rewards. In this example, consider the type of learning when a neutral stimulus (e.g., leaning on the counter) occurs just before the response (e.g., craving for a cigarette).)
- classical conditioning (Correct! Addictions are affected by classical conditioning. When someone tries to quit cigarettes, everything that was associated with smoking makes them crave a cigarette. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, and through a process of association we learn to respond in a particular way (e.g., with a craving for a cigarette) to a neutral stimulus (e.g., leaning against the counter while waiting for coffee to brew) that normally does not bring about that type of response. We learn this response because the two (cigarette smoking and leaning against the counter) have been paired together repeatedly in the past.)
A: classical conditioning

Q: When deciding on a restaurant, a friend explains, “I used to enjoy shrimp. Then one day, I ate shrimp, and the next day, I got really sick, like I had a stomach flu. Since then, just the sight of shrimp makes me nauseous.” According to Pavlov’s classical conditioning paradigm, the shrimp is a(n) ________.
- unconditioned stimulus (Incorrect. An unconditioned stimulus is one that already brings about a particular response naturally, without any learning, such as food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivation (unconditioned response). In this case, consider the term used when learning or association has taken place.)
- conditioned response (Incorrect. The conditioned response (in this case nausea) is the response to the conditioned stimulus.)
- unconditioned response (Incorrect. An unconditioned response is one that happens in response to an unconditioned stimulus, without any learning, such as food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivation (unconditioned response). In this case, consider the term used when learning or association has taken place.)
- conditioned stimulus (Correct! According to classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (shrimp) got paired with an unconditioned response (stomach flu). Now the shrimp becomes a conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response (nausea).)
A: conditioned stimulus

Q: A student is bullied at school and now associates school with fear. According to Pavlov’s classical conditioning paradigm, the fear, anxiety, and nervousness this student experiences when approaching school is a(n) ________.
- unconditioned response (Incorrect. An unconditioned response is one that happens in response to an unconditioned stimulus naturally, without any learning, such as food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivation (unconditioned response). In this case, consider the term used when learning takes place because two experiences have been repeatedly associated.)
- conditioned stimulus (certain experiences ~feedback: Incorrect. According to classical conditioning, school is a conditioned stimulus. In this case, consider the term used to describe the learned experience of fear, anxiety and nervousness that the student developed when at school.)
- unconditioned stimulus (Incorrect. An unconditioned stimulus is one that already brings about a particular response naturally, without any learning, such as food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivation (unconditioned response). In this case, consider the term used to describe the learned experience of fear, anxiety and nervousness that the student developed when at school.)
- conditioned response (Correct! The conditioned response (in this case fear, anxiety, nervousness) is the response to the conditioned stimulus (in this case school).)
A: conditioned response

Q: A store clerk witnesses the following exchange that she has seen numerous times between a parent and child who are regular customers. A child asks for a toy. The parent refuses to get it. The child throws a temper tantrum. The parent puts the toy in the shopping basket. The child stops crying. The store clerk thinks, “Behavior is controlled by its consequences,” and is referring to ________.
- classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses (such as salivation or nausea), and through a process of association, we learn to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. In this case, consider the type of learning involved in strengthening voluntary responses (e.g., the child’s temper tantrum) through consequences.)
- a Skinner Box (Incorrect. The Skinner Box refers to an operant conditioning chamber that Skinner used to conduct his experiments. He placed lab animals inside the box which contained a lever or disk that the animal could press or peck for food rewards. In this case, consider the type of learning involved in strengthening voluntary responses (e.g., the child’s temper tantrum) through consequences.)
- observational learning (Incorrect. Observational learning involves learning new responses by observing others model the behavior. In this case, consider the type of learning involved in strengthening voluntary responses (e.g., the child’s temper tantrum) through consequences.)
- operant conditioning (Correct! In operant conditioning, people learn to associate behavior and consequences. Operant conditioning refers to a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened (in this case, the child’s temper tantrum) or weakened by its association with positive consequences (in this case, the child getting the toy) or negative consequences that occur soon after the response.)
A: operant conditioning

Q: You hear an annoying beeping sound if you try to exit your car with the keys still in the ignition. The next time you park your car, you are more likely to take your keys out of the ignition before exiting. What principle of operant conditioning does this reflect?
- Observational learning (Incorrect. Observational learning is associated with Bandura’s Social Cognitive (or Social Learning) Theory and involves learning new responses by observing others model the behavior. In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of consequences in learning.)
- Unconditioned response (Incorrect. An unconditioned response is one that happens in response to an unconditioned stimulus naturally and involuntarily, without any learning, such as salivation (unconditioned response) in response to food (unconditioned stimulus). Unconditioned response is a term associated with Pavlov’s classical conditioning. In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of consequences in learning.)
- Conditioned stimulus (Incorrect. A conditioned stimulus a term associated with Pavlov’s classical conditioning, and it refers to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) that through a process of association with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) becomes a conditioned stimulus (e.g., bell) that now leads to a conditioned response (e.g., salivation). In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of consequences in learning.)
- The law of effect (Correct! According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors (e.g., leaving car keys in the ignition) that are followed by unpleasant consequences (e.g., annoying beeping) are less likely to be repeated.)
A: The law of effect

Q: A therapist advises a client who is struggling to feel motivated to complete schoolwork to watch a favorite TV show after finishing an assignment. This therapist is recommending that the client use ________.
- an unconditioned stimulus (Incorrect. An unconditioned stimulus is one that already brings about a particular response naturally, without any learning, such as food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivation (unconditioned response). Unconditioned stimulus is a term associated with Pavlov’s classical conditioning. In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of rewards in learning.)
- reciprocal determinism (Incorrect. Reciprocal determinism refers to the interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how the environment influences us and how we influence the environment. Reciprocal determinism is associated with Social Cognitive (or Social Learning) Theory of observational learning. In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of rewards in learning.)
- initiation (Incorrect. You may be thinking of Bandura’s theory that the observational learning process consists of four parts, and Initiation is the third part of the process. Initiation, according to Bandura, means that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. In this case, consider operant conditioning principles associated with the role of rewards in learning.)
- a reinforcer (Correct! According to operant conditioning principles, a reinforcer is anything following a behavior (e.g., TV watching) that makes the behavior (e.g., completing an assignment first) more likely to occur again.)
A: a reinforcer

Q: You walk into a new cafe with an unusual layout. You stand back and observe how customers order and pay at one station, then pick up their food at another station. Now you have learned how to get food in this restaurant. Which behavioral approach to learning does this describe?
- Classical conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, and through a process of association we learn to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. In this case, consider Bandura’s theory of observational learning.)
- Operant conditioning (Incorrect. In operant conditioning, people learn to associate behavior and consequences. Operant conditioning refers to a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences that occur soon after the response. In this case, consider Bandura’s theory of observational learning.)
- The law of effect (Incorrect. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. The law of effect is associated with operant conditioning. In this case, consider Bandura’s theory of observational learning.)
- Social cognitive theory (Correct! Bandura’s Social Cognitive (or Social Learning) Theory suggests that we learn new responses by observing others model the behavior. By observing how the social models behave, we are able to learn how to act in a certain situation.)
A: Social cognitive theory

Q: Students in an acting class watch instructors demonstrate stage combat techniques. These students must be able to execute the behavior (i.e., the stage combat techniques) they are trying to learn. Which part of Bandura’s observational learning process does this represent?
- Attention (Incorrect. According to Bandura, attention is the first part of the observational learning process, and it means that we must simply pay attention to what we observe in order to learn. Consider which term refers to executing behavior.)
- Retention (Incorrect. According to Bandura, retention is the second part of the observational learning process, and it means that in order to learn we must be able to retain the behavior we observe in memory. Consider which term refers to executing behavior.)
- Motivation (Incorrect. According to Bandura, motivation is the fourth and final part of the observational learning process, it means that we must want to learn how to perform a new behavior. Consider which term refers to executing behavior.)
- Initiation (Correct! Bandura theorizes that the observational learning process consists of four parts. Initiation is the third part of the process, and it means that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior.)
A: Initiation

Q: A shy student, Lila, shows up for her first day at a new school. She would prefer to slip to the back of the class unnoticed. Instead, a friendly, outgoing student, Alex, approaches Lila and invites her to sit at the same table together. Throughout that day, Lila was much more engaged with other students than she would normally have been. Which aspect of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory does this demonstrate?
- Attention (Incorrect. According to Bandura, attention is the first part of the observational learning process, and it means that we must simply pay attention to what we observe in order to learn. Consider the term that refers to the interplay between our personality and our environment.)
- Initiation (Incorrect. According to Bandura, initiation is the third part of the observational learning process, and it means that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. Consider the term that refers to the interplay between our personality and our environment.)
- Motivation (Incorrect. According to Bandura, motivation is the fourth and final part of the observational learning process, it means that we must want to learn how to perform a new behavior. Consider the term that refers to the interplay between our personality and our environment.)
- Reciprocal Determinism (Correct! Reciprocal determinism refers to the interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how the environment influences us and how we influence the environment. In this case, Lila was influenced by her environment (in the form of a welcoming friend) to engage in new behaviors.)
A: Reciprocal Determinism

Q: A researcher studies how children make sense of new information either by making it fit into known information (e.g., calling all round objects “ball”) or by modifying their thinking (e.g., learning new words for various round objects). This researcher’s work is grounded in Piaget’s ________.
- Social Cognitive Theory (Incorrect. Bandura’s Social Cognitive (or Social Learning) Theory suggests that we learn new responses by observing others model the behavior. By observing how the social models behave, we are able to learn how to act in a certain situation.)
- Classical Conditioning (Incorrect. Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, and through a process of association we learn to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. Classical conditioning is associated with Pavlov.)
- Operant Conditioning (Incorrect. In operant conditioning, people learn to associate behavior and consequences. Operant conditioning refers to a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences that occur soon after the response. Operant conditioning is associated with Skinner.)
- Theory of Cognitive Development (Correct! The underlying dynamic in our cognition, according to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, is that we continue to try and “make sense” of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking or whether we need to modify our thoughts.)
A: Theory of Cognitive Development

Q: Infants younger than 5 months old do not search for objects once they have been removed from their sight. According to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, these infants have not yet developed ________.
- conservation (Incorrect. Conservation is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.)
- egocentrism (Incorrect. Egocentrism means that a child is not able to take the perspective of others and believes that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Children in the preoperational stage (ages 2 to 6) tend to display egocentrism.)
- reversibility (Incorrect. The principle of reversibility means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Children in the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old) understand reversibility.)
- object permanence (Correct! Object permanence is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists. Infants younger than 5 months old have not developed object permanence. It develops between 5 and 8 months old.)
A: object permanence

Q: Children who are seriously reflecting on the future, imagining what they want to be when they grow up and planning what it might take to get there have reached Piaget’s ________ stage of cognitive development.
- concrete operational (Incorrect. Children in the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11) can think logically about real (concrete) events. Consider which stage is associated with the ability to engage in abstract reasoning and thinking through hypothetical situations.)
- preoperational (Incorrect. Children in the preoperational stage (ages 2 to 6) can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. Consider which stage is associated with the ability to engage in abstract reasoning and thinking through hypothetical situations.)
- sensorimotor (Incorrect. Children in the sensorimotor stage (from birth to about 2 years old) learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Consider which stage is associated with the ability to engage in abstract reasoning and thinking through hypothetical situations.)
- formal operational (Correct! Children in the formal operational stage (ages 12+) can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.)
A: formal operational

Q: During a test of cognitive ability, a student is asked to repeat a series of digits backwards. According to an information processing approach to cognitive development, this ability to retain information while actively manipulating it is an example of ________.
- cognitive neuroscience (Incorrect. Cognitive neuroscience is a broad term for the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes that underlie cognition, with a focus on neural connections in the brain that are involved in mental processes. In this case, consider the term for the specific ability to retain information while actively manipulating it.)
- reversibility (Incorrect. The principle of reversibility is associated with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. According to Piaget, children in the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old) understand reversibility. In this case, consider information processing approaches and the term for the specific ability to retain information while actively manipulating it.)
- theory-of-mind (Incorrect. Theory-of-mind is associated with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It refers to the process whereby children (typically between 3 and 5 years old) come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. In this case, consider information processing approaches and the term for the specific ability to retain information while actively manipulating it.)
- working memory (Correct! Working memory refers to the ability to actively manipulate information.)
A: working memory

Q: A(n)________ approach to development has been criticized for equating the mind to a computer and for not taking into account the social context in which development takes place.
- social cognitive theory (Incorrect. This is not a criticism of social cognitive theory, which does consider the social context in which development takes place.)
- Piagetian (Incorrect. While Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has been criticized, it has not been criticized for equating the mind with a computer or not attending to social context.)
- theory-of-mind (Incorrect. Theory-of-mind is associated with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It refers to the process whereby children (typically between 3 and 5 years old) come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own.)
- information processing (Correct! Information processing approaches have been criticized for not offering a complete explanation of behavior and for not taking into account the social context in which development takes place.)
A: information processing

Q: Piaget’s traditional approach to cognitive development has been extended by Neo-Piagetian theorists who consider how ________.
- neural connections in the brain influence thinking and problem solving. (Incorrect. Cognitive neuroscience is a broad term for the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes that underlie cognition, with a focus on neural connections in the brain that are involved in mental processes.)
- abstract logic, moral reasoning, and problem solving capabilities develop (Incorrect. You may be thinking of the formal operations stage of Piaget’s original theory of cognitive development, which is focused on the development of abstract logic, moral reasoning, and problem solving capabilities. This does not reflect an extension made by Neo-Piagetians.)
- schemas, assimilation, and accommodation influence cognitive development (Incorrect. Piaget’s original theory of cognitive development addresses how schemas, assimilation, and accommodation influence cognitive development. These concepts are not associated with advances made by Neo-Piagetians.)
- experience, culture, and interactions with others influence cognitive development (Correct! Neo-Piagetian theories view cognition as a made up of different types of individual skills, and they believe that experience, culture, and interactions with others play a greater role in furthering cognitive development.)
A: experience, culture, and interactions with others influence cognitive development

Q: A couple expecting their first child discuss how they plan to provide their child with a sense of value and positive self-concept that is not attached to specific accomplishments or conditions of worth. Carl Rogers would describe the parents as providing ________.
- freedom of choice (Incorrect. You may be thinking of Rogers’ indications of the good life. Freedom of choice occurs when people are able to make a wide range of choices, they believe that they play a role in determining their own behavior, and they feel responsible for their own behavior. Consider what Rogers would identify as essential for the development of positive self-concept.)
- organismic trust (Incorrect. You may be thinking of Rogers’ indications of the good life. Organismic trust occurs when people trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behavior that is appropriate for each moment. Consider what Rogers would identify as essential for the development of positive self-concept.)
- an existential lifestyle (Incorrect. You may be thinking of Rogers’ indications of the good life. An existential lifestyle refers to living each moment fully. Consider what Rogers would identify as essential for the development of positive self-concept.)
- unconditional positive regard (Correct! In the development of self-concept, Rogers believed that positive regard is key. According to Rogers, parents can help their children achieve their ideal self by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love, that is not tied to conditions of worth that must be achieved in order to be considered worthy.)
A: unconditional positive regard

Q: A client laments to his therapist, “Who I am and who I want to be don’t match up.” The therapist, whose approach to psychotherapy is influenced by Carl Rogers, describes this as a state of ________.
- congruence (Incorrect. According to Rogers, we experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. Rogers would say that high congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life.)
- unconditional positive regard (Incorrect. Unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love, is not tied to conditions of worth that must be achieved in order to be considered worthy. Consider the term Rogers used to describe the discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves.)
- conditional positive regard (Incorrect. Conditional positive regard is full of conditions of worth that must be achieved to be considered successful and worthy. Consider the term Rogers used to describe the discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves.)
- incongruence (Correct! According to Rogers, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.)
A: incongruence

Q: In describing his approach to psychotherapy, a therapist whose approach is informed by Carl Rogers’ work, tells new clients, “I help clients achieve ________. I help clients to become more open to life experiences, to live each moment fully, and to be more creative in dealing with life’s challenges.”
- unconditional positive regard (Incorrect. Unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love, is not tied to conditions of worth that must be achieved in order to be considered worthy. Think about how Rogers described the experience of fully functioning individuals.)
- congruence (Incorrect. According to Rogers, we experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. Rogers would say that high congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. Think about how Rogers described the experience of fully functioning individuals.)
- a positive self-concept (Incorrect. One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self-concept, our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. If you tend to feel good about who you are, then you may be considered to have a positive self-concept. Think more broadly about how Rogers described the experience of fully functioning individuals.)
- the good life (Correct! Rogers claimed that a fully functioning person would achieve what he called “the good life” by continually aiming to fulfill their potential in terms of being open to experience, living in the moment, and taking a creative approach to life challenges, among other things.)
A: the good life

Q: Human service agencies that provide food, water, clothing, and shelter to people in need are focused on helping others meet which of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
- Safety (Incorrect. While shelter may provide a sense of physical safety, this part of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs also includes the needs for personal, emotional, and financial safety. Maslow would say that other needs, such as needs for food, water, and clothing would need to be satisfied before people can seek to get needs for safety met.)
- Love and belonging (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, love and belonging refers to the need for friendships, intimacy, and belonging.)
- Esteem (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, esteem refers to the desire to be accepted, valued, and respected by others, and it also includes self-esteem and self-respect.)
- Physiological (Correct! Physiological needs are the main physical requirements for human survival, and they include such things as food, water, sleep, and shelter.)
A: Physiological

Q: A person seeks psychotherapy because of difficulty establishing and maintaining emotionally satisfying relationships. The therapist’s approach is grounded in humanistic psychology, and the therapist conceptualizes that the client’s behavior is motivated by a need for ________.
- safety (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, safety includes the needs for personal, emotional, physical, and financial safety. Consider which term refers to the need for friendships and intimacy.)
- esteem (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, esteem refers to the desire to be accepted, valued, and respected by others, and it also includes self-esteem and self-respect. Consider which term refers to the need for friendships and intimacy.)
- self-actualization (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-actualization refers to the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be, and it may include utilizing abilities and talents, pursuing goals, and seeking happiness. Consider which term refers to the need for friendships and intimacy.)
- love and belonging (Correct! In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, love and belonging refers to the need for friendships, intimacy, and belonging. Difficulties with this level of need can negatively impact a person’s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships.)
A: love and belonging

Q: A person who says, “I want to become all I ever dreamed of being and use all my talents and skills to achieve my goals!” is expressing a desire to achieve which level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
- Esteem (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, esteem refers to the desire to be accepted, valued, and respected by others, and it also includes self-esteem and self-respect. Consider which term refers to the need to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.)
- Love and belonging (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, love and belonging refers to the need for friendships, intimacy, and belonging. Consider which term refers to the need to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.)
- Economic safety (Incorrect. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, safety includes the needs for personal, emotional, physical, and financial (or economic) safety. Consider which term refers to the need to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.)
- Self-actualization (Correct! In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-actualization refers to the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be, and it may include utilizing abilities and talents, pursuing goals, and seeking happiness.)
A: Self-actualization

Q: A researcher whose study of higher order thinking skills in children is influenced by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory would be likely to investigate ________.
- the role of positive and negative reinforcement on language and learning processes (Incorrect. You are likely thinking of Skinner’s operant conditioning principle that learning is influenced by consequences, such as positive and negative reinforcement.)
- the role of congruence and incongruence on language and learning processes (Incorrect. You are likely thinking of Rogers’ humanistic approach which references congruence (e.g., when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar) and incongruence as it relates to self-concept.)
- the role of biology and neural connections on language and learning processes (Incorrect. You are likely thinking of cognitive neuroscience, which is a broad term for the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes that underlie cognition, with a focus on neural connections in the brain that are involved in mental processes.)
- the role of social interaction and culture on language and learning processes (Correct! Vygotsky is most well-known for identifying the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills.)
A: the role of social interaction and culture on language and learning processes

Q: A teacher uses a kind of guided assistance to model problem solving and provide levels of support as needed, which enables children to understand concepts and gain more language skills. What term would Vygotsky use to describe this?
- Zone of proximal development (Incorrect. The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they cannot do. Consider the specific term for the type of guided assistance or teaching strategy that can help identify what this zone is for each child.)
- Information processing (Incorrect. Information processing refers to the ways people take in, use, and store information. It is based on the idea that we do not just respond to stimuli, we process the information we receive. Consider the specific term for the type of guided assistance or teaching strategy that can help a child learn language skills.)
- Formal operations (Incorrect. You may be thinking of the formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Children in the formal operational stage (ages 12+) can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Consider the specific term for the type of guided assistance or teaching strategy that can help a child learn language skills.)
- Scaffolding (Correct! Scaffolding is a type of guided participation, with a teacher or capable peer, that can assist a child in learning cognitive skills.)
A: Scaffolding

Q: A student is close to mastering a new language skill, but the student needs more practice and assistance before performing the skill independently. According to Vygotsky, this gap between what a student can and cannot do without help is referred to as ________.
- scaffolding (Incorrect. Scaffolding is a type of guided participation, with a teacher or capable peer, that can assist a child in learning cognitive skills. Consider the specific term that captures the range of what a learner can do without help, and what they cannot do.)
- information processing (Incorrect. Information processing refers to the ways people take in, use, and store information. It is based on the idea that we do not just respond to stimuli, we process the information we receive. Consider the specific term that captures the range of what a learner can do without help, and what they cannot do.)
- formal operations (Incorrect. You may be thinking of the formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Children in the formal operational stage (ages 12+) can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Consider the specific term that captures the range of what a learner can do without help, and what they cannot do.)
- the zone of proximal development (Correct! The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they cannot do.)
A: the zone of proximal development

Q: A child therapist believes that it is important to understand all the forces that shape and impact children’s lives: individual, family, neighborhood, society, and culture. This therapist subscribes to which approach to development?
- Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Incorrect. Vygotsky is most well-known for identifying the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills. Consider which approach stresses the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments.)
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Incorrect. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory five tiers of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up on the hierarchy. Consider which approach stresses the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments.)
- Rogers’ humanistic theory (Incorrect. Rogers emphasized an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and focused on the development of positive self-concept, unconditional positive regard, and the good life. Consider which approach stresses the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments.)
- Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model (Correct! Bronfenbrenner recognized the importance of the environment on development, and he stressed the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments.)
A: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model

Q: School administrators and teachers meet yearly to review the school philosophy, daily routines, assessment methods, and other elements of the school system because they know these factors can affect a child’s self-image, learning, and sense of accomplishment. These educators and their concerns represent which element of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model?
- Microsystem (Incorrect. A microsystem refers to parents or siblings, those people who have direct, significant contact with a person. Consider which system refers to organizational structures, such as a school.)
- Exosystem (Incorrect. The exosystem refers to larger contexts of community and the community’s values, history, and economy, which can impact the organizational structures it houses. Consider which system refers specifically to organizational structures, such as a school.)
- Macrosystem (Incorrect. Macrosystems are cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community. Consider which system refers to organizational structures, such as a school.)
- Mesosystem (Correct! The mesosystem includes larger organizational structures such as school, family, or religion.)
A: Mesosystem

Q: A child development expert publishes a book on the impact of global advances in technology on children’s development. According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model, what would be a good subtitle for the author’s book?
- A Mesosystem View (Incorrect. The mesosystem includes larger organizational structures such as school, family, or religion. Consider which system refers to larger, global issues.)
- An Exosystem View (Incorrect. The exosystem refers to larger contexts of community and the community’s values, history, and economy, which can impact the organizational structures it houses. Consider which system refers to larger, global issues.)
- A Microsystem View (Incorrect. A microsystem refers to parents or siblings, those people who have direct, significant contact with a person. Consider which system refers to larger, global issues.)
- A Macrosystem View (Correct! Macrosystems are cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community.)
A: A Macrosystem View

Q: A researcher states, “In order to understand human development, we must consider how our genetic inheritance determines behavior and personality and seek to understand which traits became adaptive through a process of natural selection.” This researcher is a proponent of which perspective?
- The ecological perspective (Incorrect. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model recognized the importance of the environment on development, and he stressed the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments. Consider the perspective that seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations based on natural selection.)
- The exosystem perspective (Incorrect. You are likely thinking about Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model in which the exosystem refers to larger contexts of community and the community’s values, history, and economy, which can impact the organizational structures it houses. Consider the perspective that seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations based on natural selection.)
- The ethology perspective (Incorrect. The field of ethology examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. Consider the more specific perspective that seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations based on natural selection.)
- The evolutionary perspective (Correct! The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution.)
A: The evolutionary perspective

Q: A research team is interested in studying the genetic contributions to addictive behavior, such as Internet gambling. They use twin, family, and adoption studies to compare the health and behavior outcomes of individuals who share the same environment or hereditary lineage. Which type of scientific research is this team conducting?
- Cognitive neuroscience (Incorrect. Cognitive neuroscience is a broad term for the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes that underlie cognition, with a focus on neural connections in the brain that are involved in mental processes. Consider the type of scientific research that investigates individual differences in behavior and the effects of heredity on behavior.)
- Microsystems (Incorrect. You are likely thinking about Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model in which the microsystem refers to parents or siblings, those people who have direct, significant contact with a person. Consider the type of scientific research that investigates individual differences in behavior and the effects of heredity on behavior.)
- Sociocultural (Incorrect. You may be thinking of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which focuses on the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills. Consider the type of scientific research that investigates individual differences in behavior and the effects of heredity on behavior.)
- Behavioral genetics (Correct! Behavioral genetics is a field of scientific research that investigates individual differences in behavior and the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral geneticists strive to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display those traits. It also considers how genetic factors may influence psychological disorders.)
A: Behavioral genetics

Q: Evolutionary perspectives on lifespan development have been criticized for ________.
- proposing discrete stages rather than a continuous process of growth and learning (Incorrect. This is a criticism of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.)
- focusing on behaviors that are reflexively elicited and not new behaviors (Incorrect. This is a criticism of Skinner’s classical conditioning approach.)
- underestimating what children are capable of given the right circumstances (Incorrect. This is a criticism of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.)
- insufficient attention to environmental and social factors involved in behavior (Correct! Some developmental psychologists are concerned over too much emphasis on genetic and biological aspects of behavior, and suggest that the evolutionary perspective places insufficient attention on environmental and social factors involved in producing behavior.)
A: insufficient attention to environmental and social factors involved in behavior

Q: When lifespan development researchers use ________, they draw on several perspectives simultaneously because they recognize that the same developmental phenomenon can be viewed from a number of angles.
- a macrosystems approach (Incorrect. You are likely thinking about Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model, which involves understanding people in the context of multiple environments. In this model, macrosystems are cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community. Consider an approach that draws on several perspectives or models.)
- an ecological approach (Incorrect. You are likely thinking about Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model, which involves understanding people in the context of multiple environments. Consider an approach that draws on several perspectives or models.)
- an evolutionary approach (Incorrect. The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Consider an approach that draws on several perspectives or models.)
- an eclectic approach (Correct! Many lifespan developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives at the same time as the same developmental phenomenon can be viewed from a number of perspectives.)
A: an eclectic approach

Q: Which two approaches to lifespan development have the following in common: development is continuous, there are many courses of development, and development is more influenced by nurture than nature?
- Psychosexual theory and psychosocial theory (Incorrect. Psychosexual theory and psychosocial theory view development as discontinuous, suggest that there is one course of development (stages are universal), and suggest that development is influenced by both nurture and nature.)
- Social cognitive theory and Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (Incorrect. Social cognitive theory views development as continuous, suggests that there are many courses of development, and suggests that development is influenced mostly by nurture. Piaget’s theory views development as discontinuous, suggests that there is one course of development (stages are universal), and suggests that development is influenced by both nurture and nature.)
- Humanistic theory and sociocultural theory (Incorrect. Humanistic theory views development as continuous, suggests that there is generally one course of development, and suggests that development is influenced mostly by nurture. Sociocultural theory views development as both continuous and discontinuous, but mostly continuous; suggests that there are many courses of development, and suggests that development is influenced by both nurture and nature.)
- Classical conditioning and operant conditioning (Correct! Both classical and operant conditioning view development as continuous, suggest that there are many courses of development, and suggest that development is more influenced by nurture than nature.)
A: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Q: Social cognitive theory (social learning theory) proposes that ________, whereas Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that ________.
- there are distinct stages of development; learning is unique to each person (Incorrect. Social cognitive theory does not propose that there are distinct stages of development and Piaget’s theory does not propose that learning is unique to each person. In fact, Piaget proposes that the stages of cognitive development are universal for everyone.)
- learning is universal for everyone; development follows many courses (Incorrect. Social cognitive theory (social learning theory) does not proposes that learning is universal. Piaget’s theory proposes that development follows one course, that the stages of cognitive development are universal for everyone.)
- development is more influenced by nature than nurture; development is more influenced by nurture than nature (Incorrect. Social learning theory suggests that learning is influenced mostly by nurture. Piaget’s theory suggests that learning is influenced by both nature and nurture.)
- learning is unique to each person; there are distinct stages of development (Correct! Social cognitive theory (social learning theory) proposes that learning is unique to each person and continuous, and Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that there are distinct stages of development (discontinuous).)
A: learning is unique to each person; there are distinct stages of development