Title: Infancy
Course: Question Banks

Q: A child is born with a normal birth weight and length, but over the next few months, the child falls below the 20th percentile for these figures. What term most accurately describes this baby’s development?
- Premature (Incorrect. Premature is a term used to describe a child born before their due date, typically by several weeks or more, which may entail complications from underdevelopment.)
- Failure to develop (Incorrect. The term “failure to thrive” is used to describe an infant who is born within a normal percentile, but subsequently falls below the 20th percentile.)
- Malnourished (Incorrect. There is not enough information here to determine whether the baby is receiving proper nutrition, so this is not the best answer.)
- Failure to thrive (Correct! An infant born within healthy parameters who later falls below the 20th percentile is failing to thrive, and parents and doctors should be concerned.)
A: Failure to thrive

Q: A baby loses weight shortly after birth. This is normal, as the child adjusts to life outside of the womb. Approximately what percentage of their total body weight does a child lose in these first few days?
- 25% (Incorrect. 25% is a significant amount of the child’s weight, and is more than a normal amount of weight for a child to lose in their first few days of life, a cause for serious concern.)
- 1% (Incorrect. While the baby doesn’t weigh much at birth, 1% of their weight is a fairly insignificant amount and would be difficult to detect or track.)
- 15% (Incorrect. A child only loses about 5% of their body weight in the first few days of life. 15% would likely be cause for medical intervention.)
- 5% (Correct! Children lose about 5% of their body weight in the first few days of life; a normal part of development.)
A: 5%

Q: Larry is born at 8 pounds. By the time he is two years old, he should weigh approximately how much?
- 16 pounds (Incorrect. Infants typically quadruple their birth weight by the age of two, so weighing only twice his birth weight would be cause for concern.)
- 20 pounds (Incorrect. Infants typically quadruple their birth weight by the age of two, so this weight would be cause for concern.)
- 48 pounds (Incorrect. This is six times as much as Larry weighed when he was born; he may be overweight or growing especially fast for his age.)
- 32 pounds (Correct! Infants typically quadruple their birth weight by the age of two.)
A: 32 pounds

Q: Dendrites grow rapidly in infancy, making complicated neural networks possible, through a process called ________.
- pruning (Incorrect. Pruning takes place after dendrites have formed, and a neuron may have thousands of dendrites. Pruning eliminates extraneous dendrites to strengthen the most-used connections.)
- dendritic connection (Incorrect. Dendrites pass neurotransmitter signals to each other, but the process of new dendrites forming is called transient exuberance.)
- neural grafting (Incorrect. The term graft implies a knitting or connecting of tissues (or neurons) that weren’t connected before. This term doesn’t capture the rapid, dramatic growth process described in dendrite growth.)
- transient exuberance. (Correct! Dendrites grow at a rapid pace, for a relatively short amount of time (during the first two years of life). This short-lived (transient), dramatic growth, is called transient exuberance.)
A: transient exuberance.

Q: This portion of the brain, responsible for planned decision-making and emotional regulation, is the last to develop in an infant’s brain.
- Myelin (Incorrect. Myelin is the fatty layer that insulates the axon of nerves and aids processing speed.)
- Neurons (Incorrect. Neurons are the basic cells that make up the brain.)
- Hypothalamus (Incorrect. The hypothalamus regulates bodily functions, such as hormone release and body temperature regulation.)
- Prefrontal cortex (Correct! The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher-level decision-making and reasoning, and it grows significantly in infancy, through adolescence.)
A: Prefrontal cortex

Q: This layer of fatty tissue protects axons and speeds transmission of information from one neuron to another.
- Transient exuberance (Incorrect. Transient exuberance is the term used to describe the relatively brief surge of dendritic creation that occurs in an infant’s brain.)
- Axon shield (Incorrect. While this layer protects the axon, acting as a shield, the name for the tissue surrounding the axon is myelin.)
- Neurogenesis (Incorrect. Neurogenesis is the creation of neural cells.)
- Myelin sheath (Correct! The myelin sheath is made of fatty tissue that protects the axon and speeds the transmission of neurotransmitter data between neurons.)
A: Myelin sheath

Q: Infants develop motor skills in an organized manner, with motor skills developing in a top-down and center-out manner. What two principles describe this process of development?
- Dendritic and proximodistal development (Incorrect. Dendritic development is the process of new dendrites forming; proximodistal development describes center-out development of motor skills.)
- Sensation and perception (Incorrect. Sensation and perception aid in the development of motor skills, however, the principles described here outline the order in which motor skills develop.)
- Cephalocaudal and gross motor development (Incorrect. Cephalocaudal development describes top-down development, where infants’ motor skill progression begins with their head, but their skills also progress in a proximodistal, or center-out fashion, as motor skills become more and more refined.)
- Cephalocaudal and proximodistal development (Correct! The terms cephalocaudal (head-down), and proximodistal (center-out) describe the development of infants’ motor skills. First, they learn gross motor skills and larger bodily movements, and later they learn fine motor skills using the feet and hands.)
A: Cephalocaudal and proximodistal development

Q: Jeanie’s infant turns his head toward a hand placed near his cheek. What does this head-turning behavior exemplify?
- The babinski reflex (Incorrect. The babinski reflex involves fanning the toes when the bottom of the foot is stroked, and serves no evolutionary purpose other than to signify neurological development.)
- The sucking reflex (Incorrect. The sucking reflex is a baby’s response to objects inserted into the mouth, which is closely associated with the rooting reflex, both of which are designed to help the infant find food.)
- The moro reflex (Incorrect. The moro reflex involves flinging the arms out, then bringing them back to the chest when the infant hears a loud noise.)
- The rooting reflex (Correct! The rooting reflex is an infant’s natural food-seeking response to objects placed near their cheeks, as they search for a search of sustenance.)
A: The rooting reflex

Q: 9-month old Fred concentrates on picking up small pieces of round cereal and placing them in a cup. What motor skill is he practicing?
- Gross motor skills (Incorrect. The skill Fred is performing involves his fingertips in a precise set of motions, making it a fine motor skill, specifically the pincer grasp.)
- Locomotion (Incorrect. Locomotion means movement from place to place. When a child begins to scoot and crawl, the child begins locomotion.)
- Reaching (Incorrect. Reaching for objects is an earlier step to developing this skill; however, the set of motions needed to grasp and release an object is more complex than reaching alone. .)
- The pincer grasp (Correct! Each time Fred grasps and releases one of the small pieces of cereal, he is practicing and refining his pincer grasp.)
A: The pincer grasp

Q: Which of the senses is the most well-developed in a newborn at the time of birth?
- Sight (Incorrect. Sight is the weakest sense at birth, and newborns develop greater acuity of sight gradually as they develop.)
- Touch (Incorrect. Infants’ sense of touch and pain are present at birth, and are fairly well developed, however, hearing is the infant’s most robust sense at birth.)
- Taste (Incorrect. Infants are able to distinguish between a variety of tastes: bitter, sweet, sour, and salty, and they express a preference for sweet things. Their sense of hearing, however, is more robust and gives them more information about the world around them.)
- Hearing (Correct! Infants enter the world with their sense of hearing the most well-developed of their senses.)
A: Hearing

Q: Infants lack the verbal capacity to give us feedback on their sensations and perceptions, but we can measure their abilities by monitoring bodily functions. If doctors monitor a newborn and find increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, increased stress hormones, and decreased oxygen in the blood, which sensation can they surmise the infant is experiencing?
- Sight (Incorrect. Preferential looking is the most common form of measuring an infant’s visual abilities.)
- Hearing (Incorrect. Infants are most familiar with their mother’s voice, and aural recognition can be measured by studying the rate at which the infant sucks on a pacifier.)
- Recognition (Incorrect. Mere recognition would not cause such a heightened bodily reaction; this reaction indicates something painful is occurring.)
- Pain (Correct! These are signs that the baby is experiencing pain, and doctors should strive to minimize the baby’s pain experience.)
A: Pain

Q: Tasha is crawling, navigating around large objects in her way, and looking up at objects taller than herself. What perceptual ability can we surmise from this information that Tasha has developed?
- Three-dimensional vision (Incorrect. Infants understand three-dimensional vision before they are able to crawl around in, and explore their world.)
- Pattern recognition (Incorrect. As infants grow, they show a preference for complex patterns and variety over flat, uncomplicated images. This is an indicator of growing neural pathways and strengthening powers of sight.)
- Color vision (Incorrect. Within a few months, infants are able to distinguish colors as well as adults can. Crawling and exploring one’s surroundings, above and below, indicates an understanding of depth.)
- Depth perception (Correct! Understanding the different heights of objects around her indicates Tasha is aware that different objects have different depths. Applied to the visual cliff experiment, Tasha would also stop at the edge of the visual cliff.)
A: Depth perception

Q: This thick, nutrient-dense substance is produced during the first few days of breastfeeding, and helps a child build immunities.
- Breast milk (Incorrect. Before breast milk is produced, a mother produces the thick, nutrient-dense colostrum her baby needs in the first few days of life.)
- Placenta (Incorrect. The placenta helps nourish and protect the child in-utero.)
- Milk fat (Incorrect. Fat is an important part of a baby’s diet, supporting myelination of brain cells. Colostrum and breast milk are rich in essential fats.)
- Colostrum (Correct! Colostrum is produced during pregnancy and in the first few days of a child’s life. Colostrum is rich in nutrients and immunity-building substances.)
A: Colostrum

Q: In which of these scenarios is it more ideal for a mother to use formula than to breastfeed?
- The mother has access to clean water. (Incorrect. Access to clean water is necessary for formula-feeding, but when both options are available, breastfeeding is still preferable.)
- The mother is poor. (Incorrect. Breastfeeding is more cost-effective, in general, than purchasing formula, as the mother’s body produces this necessary nourishment.)
- Breastfeeding increases the mother’s risk of cancer. (Incorrect. Breastfeeding can decrease the risk of certain cancers (breast cancer, ovarian cancer).)
- The mother has a transmittable disease, such as HIV. (Correct! In this case, the risk of passing the virus to the child through the mother’s breast milk is too great, and formula-feeding is more prudent.)
A: The mother has a transmittable disease, such as HIV.

Q: Breastmilk confers immunities and health benefits to children. For a child to gain most of the health benefits of breastfeeding, a mother should try to maintain breastfeeding until the child is how old?
- Two years (Incorrect. While two years of breastfeeding is ideal, and in some countries this is the recommendation for mothers, children who breastfeed for at least six months gain most of the health benefits breastfeeding provides.)
- Three months (Incorrect. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends children breastfeed exclusively for at least the first six months of life, however, some breastfeeding is generally preferable to none.)
- Six weeks (Incorrect. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends children breastfeed exclusively for at least the first six months of life, however, some breastfeeding is generally preferable to none.)
- Six months (Correct! The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends children breastfeed exclusively for at least the first six months of life.)
A: Six months

Q: A mother has a second child within a close time span of the first child, and the first child no longer has access to the mother’s breast milk. For what disease does the older child have a heightened risk, if other forms of nutrition are lacking in the child’s diet?
- Marasmus (Incorrect. Infantile marasmus is starvation due to lack of calories and protein.)
- Milk anemia (Incorrect. Milk anemia is an iron deficiency common in children who drink cow’s milk in place of breast milk or other nutrient-rich foods and snacks.)
- Mineral deficiency (Incorrect. Although the child may also suffer a mineral deficiency, the deficit in nutrition caused by the child’s displacement and discontinued breastfeeding is known as kwashiorkor.)
- Kwashiorkor (Correct! Kwashiorkor is also called the “disease of the displaced child,” where an older child ceases to breastfeed when another child is born, and the older child does not get proper nutrition.)
A: Kwashiorkor

Q: Which is the most compelling reason parents should introduce new solid foods to children one at a time?
- Children may be picky eaters (Incorrect. While children may be picky eaters, parents will discover this through trial and error, with little danger. If children are allergic to new foods, parents need to be able to identify which food caused an adverse reaction.)
- New foods may be harder to digest (Incorrect. New foods may take some adjustment from the child’s digestive system, however, the most important reason to introduce foods slowly is to identify possible allergies.)
- Children need time to assimilate new items into food schemas (Incorrect. Children are more likely to put everything in their mouths, and must be told what NOT to put in their mouth; they are ready to assimilate new concepts into their idea of “food.”)
- Food allergies may present (Correct! Food allergies are the foremost reason to introduce new foods one at a time, a few days apart. If a child is allergic to a new food, the culprit is readily apparent if parents space out new food offerings.)
A: Food allergies may present

Q: Iron is an essential nutrient for brain development, and breast milk provides a steady source of iron for infants. After weaning, what nutritional concern arises when children start drinking cow’s milk?
- Marasmus (Incorrect. Marasmus is starvation from lack of sufficient calories and protein. While any child not receiving proper nutrition is at risk, the risk specific to substituting cow’s milk for other foods is milk anemia, an iron deficiency.)
- Kwashiorkor (Incorrect. If the child weans off breast milk and eats a proper diet otherwise, kwashiorkor is not a primary concern. Iron deficiency, in the form of milk anemia, is the specific form of malnutrition associated with drinking too much cow’s milk at the expense of other iron-rich foods.)
- Calcium deficiency (Incorrect. The calcium in cow’s milk can block proper iron absorption, so the problem with too much cow’s milk is an iron deficiency, not a calcium deficiency.)
- Milk anemia (Correct! The iron contained in breast milk is plentiful and easy for children to digest. When children wean off breast milk and begin eating solid foods and drinking cow’s milk, it is important that they get plenty of iron in the food they eat, and parents limit the amount of cow’s milk the child drinks, as calcium blocks iron absorption and appetite.)
A: Milk anemia

Q: The campaign to increase back-sleeping awareness in infants attempts to address which of the following sleep concerns?
- Sleep disruptions (Incorrect. Infants often have unpredictable sleep patterns, and sleep position is not likely to fix disruptions in sleep, but is instead designed to keep the infant from accidental suffocation.)
- Co-sleeping (Incorrect. Co-sleeping presents a suffocation risk to children, no matter what position the child sleeps in, so back sleeping does not effectively address concerns related to co-sleeping.)
- Sleeping through the night (Incorrect. Infants cycle through sleep cycles more rapidly than adults do, and their sleep cycles can be unpredictable and frustrating. Back-sleeping is not likely to address this particular concern.)
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Correct! The causes of many sudden infant deaths are unknown, but one controllable factor is removing suffocation hazards. For an infant who cannot yet hold up his or her own head consistently, stomach sleeping may present a suffocation risk, so experts recommend back-sleeping.)
A: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Q: Proponents of skin-to-skin attachment may advocate for co-sleeping as a way for parents and children to form secure attachments, but co-sleeping can present the risk of SIDS. Which alternative presents an attractive compromise for parents who want to minimize the risk to their child?.
- Room sharing only (Incorrect. Room sharing is a good way to allow parents to sleep close to their children without endangering them in the same bed, but augmenting this practice with breastfeeding is even better.)
- Breastfeeding only (Incorrect. Breastfeeding is ideal. For those parents who want their children to sleep close to them, breastfeeding plus room sharing may be an effective safety compromise to co-sleeping.)
- Bed-sharing (Incorrect. Bed-sharing is another term for co-sleeping, which can present safety risks to children.)
- Room sharing and breastfeeding, combined (Correct! Breastfeeding provides skin-to-skin contact and room sharing allows responsive, close parental sleeping arrangements, without sacrificing safety.)
A: Room sharing and breastfeeding, combined

Q: Lorena is 6 months old, and often wakes during the night. Her parents wish she would wake less frequently during the night, but as long as Lorena gets about how many hours of sleep per day, is her sleep considered normal for a child her age?
- 6-8 hours (Incorrect. Some children begin sleeping through the night for 6-8 hour stretches at a time, but they still need naps throughout the day, and a total of around 14-15 hours of sleep at 6 months old.)
- 8-10 hours (Incorrect. 8-10 hours of sleep is a recommended amount for older children. Babies still need quite a bit more sleep than this in a 24-hour cycle.)
- 17-20 hours (Incorrect. If a child is consistently sleeping 17-20 hours per day at this age, there may be cause for medical concern.)
- 14-15 hours (Correct! 14-15 hours of sleep in a 24-hour period is typical for a 6-month-old. While many children start sleeping from 6-8 hours through the night by this age, others do not begin regularly sleeping through the night until they are older.)
A: 14-15 hours

Q: For herd immunity to ensure the average person within a society is immune to a disease, what percentage of that population must be vaccinated?
- About 50% (Incorrect. Herd immunity cannot rely on just 50% of the population to be immunized; it takes a greater proportion of the community to achieve herd immunity.)
- 100% (Incorrect. Fortunately for those who cannot receive vaccinations for medical reasons, they are protected by about 90% of the population being immunized. The population does not need 100% vaccination for immunity.)
- About 99% (Incorrect. This number is on the high side, but ideally, everyone who is healthy enough to receive a vaccination will receive a given vaccination to ensure herd immunity.)
- About 90% (Correct! Herd immunity protects a population from a disease for which about 90% (or more) of the population has been immunized.)
A: About 90%

Q: Many forms of communicable disease are preventable. Some immunities are transferred to children through the mother’s breast milk. Immunities to other diseases are administered to children at medical appointments, in what form?
- Herd immunity (Incorrect. Herd immunity is the concept that if enough (roughly 90%) of a population is immunized, the community’s immunity is enough to protect those who do not have the immunity from contracting a disease.)
- Antibodies (Incorrect. Antibodies fight disease within a body. Vaccines help build antibodies against certain diseases.)
- Natural remedies (Incorrect. The term “natural remedy” could take almost any form. Many natural substances have healing properties, but the label of “natural” does not necessarily bestow immunity.)
- Vaccinations (Correct! Vaccinations inject a weakened or inert form of a virus into the recipient, whose natural antibodies build a defense against that disease, which protects them for a long duration (some, for life).)
A: Vaccinations

Q: Parents who opt out of vaccinating their children, and later send them to school, increase the risk to other children by reducing the overall community immunity rate, known as what?
- Disease eradication (Incorrect. The prevalence rate of a disease’s occurrence can be effectively eradicated if a population has herd immunity, but this requires vaccination.)
- Total immunity (Incorrect. In most populations, some individuals will not be vaccinated for medical or other reasons, and the herd immunity protects the population in general from a given disease. Total immunity is rare.)
- Proportional immunity (Incorrect. While a significant proportion, at least 90% of a population, must be immunized to achieve community immunity, the term associated with this protection is herd immunity.)
- Herd immunity (Correct! About 90% of a given population must be vaccinated to ensure herd immunity, or protection of the entire community. The greater the percentage of unvaccinated individuals in a community, the more the herd’s immunity is compromised.)
A: Herd immunity

Q: Omar, a 6-month-old child, shakes his mother’s car keys to hear the sound they make. He likes the sound and wants it to happen again, so he shakes the keys again and again. What stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor development does this behavior reflect?
- Primary circular reactions (Incorrect. Primary circular reactions don’t extend to objects outside the infant; instead, these are focused on the infant’s own body.)
- Goal-directed behavior (Incorrect. Goal-directed behavior is a more sophisticated stage of sensorimotor development associated with maturation of the prefrontal cortex, which typically does not occur until about eight to twelve months of age.)
- Reflexes (Incorrect. Reflexive reactions take place in the first four months of an infant’s life, and consist of automatic behaviors and movements.)
- Secondary circular reactions (Correct! A child around four to eight months old takes delight in repeated actions that trigger some sort of interaction, such as shaking the keys to produce a pleasing sound. These actions involve another object, so they are secondary, but are repeated, so they are circular in nature.)
A: Secondary circular reactions

Q: If Rana, an 8-month-old child, looks for an object that has been hidden behind a screen, Rana is most likely demonstrating a basic understanding of what concept?
- Conservation (Incorrect. Conservation doesn’t develop until the child is much older. It is the understanding that, even in different configurations, a given quantity remains the same.)
- Assimilation (Incorrect. Assimilation involves incorporating new information into one’s existing schema for a certain item or event.)
- Accommodation (Incorrect. Accommodation involves adjusting one’s schema to fit new information that falls outside of one’s existing schema.)
- Object permanence (Correct! Object permanence is the realization that an object still exists even when it is not visible. By looking for the object, Rana displays a basic understanding of this concept.)
A: Object permanence

Q: Twelve-month old Dennis accidentally knocks his bowl off the table. The bowl spins on the floor before coming to a stop. Dennis’s mom picks up the bowl and places it back on the table, so he knocks it down again to see if it will spin. Dennis knocks the bowl down each time his mother picks it up. What substage of sensorimotor development does this behavior reflect?
- Secondary circular reactions (Incorrect. Secondary circular reactions involve other objects, such as the bowl, but Dennis is actively learning, making it a tertiary circular reaction and the result of active experimentation.)
- Primary circular reactions (Incorrect. Primary circular reactions have to do with the infant’s own body, and occur at an earlier stage of development. Dennis is manipulating objects outside of himself.)
- Mental representations (Incorrect. This isn’t a problem-solving strategy, but rather an experiment. Dennis is experimenting with the bowl and the floor, but not toward any other end goal.)
- Active experimentation (Correct! Dennis is actively experimenting with knocking the bowl over in an effort to re-create the spinning effect.)
A: Active experimentation

Q: Jesse lived with a foster family when she was about a year old. Now, as a six-year-old, she lives with a different family and does not recognize her former foster parents when they pass each other in the grocery store. What is the most reasonable explanation for this lack of recognition?
- Jesse has blocked the memories of her former foster parents, so she will not consciously remember them. (Incorrect. This answer jumps to a negative conclusion; the most likely scenario is that Jesse simply didn’t have the vocabulary when she lived with the foster family as she does now, and her memories were encoded differently than she is able to retrieve them now.)
- Jesse would remember their names, but not their faces, so running into them did not trigger her memory. (Incorrect. Jesse is more likely to recall faces she knew as a younger child than verbal information, as she had a limited vocabulary at the age of one, so this is not the best answer.)
- Jesse did not live with that family long enough to have made any memories with them. (Incorrect. The question stem does not specify how long Jesse lived with the family, so this answer does not give enough information. It may be that they were a fleeting presence in her life, but Jesse also has different verbal and memory encoding skills now than she did at age one.)
- Jesse’s memories of the foster parents were not encoded verbally, and she has lost those memories (Correct! Jesse has a different vocabulary and different ways to remember events as a six-year-old than she did as a one-year-old. As children age, the nature of memory encoding changes, and memories encoded without verbal cues aren’t easily recalled.)
A: Jesse’s memories of the foster parents were not encoded verbally, and she has lost those memories

Q: 18-month old Jamie sees his mother eat kale, while he enjoys graham crackers. Jamie’s mother expresses how much she loves kale. When presented with the opportunity to give his mother either some of his graham crackers or some of the kale she likes, which will Jamie give his mother, and why?
- Graham crackers, because he likes them (Incorrect. Research shows that a 15-month old child will make this decision, but by 18 months, the child has learned to take another’s perspective enough that Jamie will take his mother’s preference into consideration.)
- Graham crackers, because everyone must like them (Incorrect. A 15-month old child may make this decision, not understanding that others can have a different perspective than they do, but by 18 months, Jamie can understand his mother’s preference for kale.)
- Kale, because he wants all of the graham crackers for himself (Incorrect. This decision involves a selfish choice, which isn’t Jamie’s motivation at this age, where he has learned to acknowledge others’ preferences.)
- Kale, because his mother likes it (Correct! Research shows that an 18-month old child like Jamie can take the perspective of another person, and understand that even when he prefers graham crackers, his mother prefers kale.)
A: Kale, because his mother likes it

Q: Which of the following is a common critique of Piaget’s work?
- Piaget overestimated the cognitive abilities of children (Incorrect. Piaget is commonly criticized for underestimating children’s cognitive abilities.)
- Piaget used too many subjects in his studies (Incorrect. Piaget based his initial findings on his own children, and later findings with small, non-random samples.)
- Piaget believed children mastered object permanence earlier than reality (Incorrect. Critics of Piaget believe children may grasp the concept of object permanence at an earlier age than Piaget credited.)
- Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of children (Correct! Studies on object permanence and preferential looking in infants younger than 8 months old showed the ability to grasp, if not master, the concept.)
A: Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of children

Q: Jonah, a 12-month-old, uses the shortened word, ba- to indicate he wants his bottle. What kind of speech does this shortened use of a word represent?
- Underextension (Incorrect. Underextension is a misunderstanding of an object being part of a greater category. With underextension, instead of “kitty” pertaining to any juvenile cat, the child may think that only a certain cat is called “Kitty.”)
- Overextension (Incorrect. Overextension is an overgeneralization. For example, all vehicles may be a “car,” versus a truck, van, etc...and adults do this too!)
- Babbling (Incorrect. Babbling typically involves the repetition of syllables, so a single “ba-” is not babbling, but “ba ba ba ba,” is.)
- Holophrasic speech (Correct! Children often use shortened versions of words to indicate their intentions when they are unable to articulate complete words and phrases.)
A: Holophrasic speech

Q: Many children learn sign language as infants and toddlers. How does this enhance their communication abilities?
- Children have more acute vision than hearing, so seeing signs is easier than hearing words. (Incorrect. Hearing is the most developed sense at birth, and sight is the weakest. Sign language facilitates communication by enabling a wider vocabulary than the child can produce vocally.)
- Sign language negates the need for speech until the child is able to articulate full thoughts. (Incorrect. Sign language typically augments the spoken word, and children use signs and words in combination to express their thoughts, testing out all of their new abilities.)
- Children understand less than they can hear, so sign language helps them express confusion. (Incorrect. Children understand more of what they hear than they can communicate back to others, and sign language gives them additional tools of communication.)
- Children understand more than they can vocalize, and gestures help convey meaning. (Correct! Children understand more than they are able to vocalize, so sign language enables them additional vocabulary with the use of gestures.)
A: Children understand more than they can vocalize, and gestures help convey meaning.

Q: Which of the following phrases is most likely to come from an 18-month old, and mean, “Mother, I would like to take the dog to the park.”?
- I want to go park with dog (Incorrect. “I want to go…” is a full phrase with a subject, less likely to be conveyed in telegraphic speech, and adding the preposition “with dog,” makes the sentence nearly grammatically complete, which is a bit advanced for an 18-month-old.)
- Let’s go to the park with dog! (Incorrect. Adding the subject “let’s” and the preposition “with dog” make this sentence more advanced than the typical telegraphic speech an 18-month old might display.)
- Me take dog to the park, please! (Incorrect. This is nearly a fully-formed sentence, with more advanced grammatical rules than is typically found in an 18-month-old’s telegraphic speech.)
- Doggie, go park (Correct! This is an example of telegraphic speech. It conveys the basic message of the dog and the park, and the mother probably knows the rest from context.)
A: Doggie, go park

Q: Nils believes children learn language through reinforcement and repetition. With which school of thought do Nils’ beliefs align?
- Nativist (Incorrect. Chomsky’s nativist approach suggests the child begins life with an innate ability to acquire language, through an innate mechanism called the language acquisition device.)
- Pragmatist (Incorrect. The social pragmatist perspective views the child as an active learner, gathering the tools of speech in order to communicate with others.)
- Expressionist (Incorrect. Expressionism is a form of art used to evoke emotion; this can easily be confused with language, given its use of the term “expression.”)
- Behaviorist (Correct! The behaviorist approach emphasizes learning through repetition and reinforcement. B.F. Skinner believed language, just like teaching animals to perform a behavior for a reward, could be taught through reinforcement alone.)
A: Behaviorist

Q: Noam Chomsky believed all children were born with an innate ability to understand any language, and as they grow, they specialize in a specific, native language. What neurological construct did Chomsky cite as responsible for this ability?
- Language Learning Center (Incorrect. Chomsky proposed the language acquisition device (LAD) as responsible for the ability to learn and understand language.)
- Hippocampus (Incorrect. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, and while it is associated with learning and memory, the LAD does not reside in the hippocampus. The LAD’s location is unknown, but likely associated with multiple areas within the brain.)
- Prefrontal Cortex (Incorrect. The prefrontal cortex is associated with higher-level planning and decision making.)
- Language Acquisition Device (Correct! The language acquisition device (LAD) is a theoretical construct in the brain that Chomsky believed all children possessed that facilitated language learning.)
A: Language Acquisition Device

Q: Simon believes his toddler is learning language to interact with others and to survive in the world. Which language learning theory does Simon likely subscribe to?
- Behaviorism (Incorrect. Behaviorism focuses on repetition and reinforcement as the keys to language learning.)
- Nativism (Incorrect. Nativists believe children are born with an innate language acquisition device, which predisposes them to learn languages.)
- Reinforcement (Incorrect. Reinforcement is a behaviorist principle. Reinforcing a behavior, or a child saying a word, increases the likeliness of it happening again.)
- Social pragmatics (Correct! Social pragmatists believe children learn the rules of language and grammar in order to communicate with others and facilitate survival in a social world.)
A: Social pragmatics

Q: The basic presentation of the Hamlin and Wynn giver-taker puppet show revealed that children had a preference for what type of behavior?
- Taking (Incorrect. Children generally preferred the puppet who returned the ball to the middle puppet who lost the ball, exhibiting a preference for prosocial behavior.)
- Reciprocal (Incorrect. The basic experiment did not show an example of reciprocity, but given the children’s preference for prosocial, giving behavior, they would likely also choose conditions of reciprocity.)
- Neutral (Incorrect. The puppets either helped or stole from the center puppet, and children showed a preference for helping.)
- Prosocial (Correct! Children preferred the puppet who helped the other puppet and returned the ball, demonstrating a preference for prosocial behavior.)
A: Prosocial

Q: In their puppet experiments, Hamlin and Wynn demonstrated a possible difference in motive between 5-month olds and 8-month olds. What was this proposed difference?
- Color preference (Incorrect. The bright colors used in the experiments didn’t change between the age groups, and different children prefer different colors, so color did not make their decision.)
- There was no difference (Incorrect. More 8-month olds chose the “revenge” situation than 5-month olds, and although it is difficult to ascertain definitively that 8-month olds used a revenge motivation, the consistency of the results demonstrated a common theme and possible just world belief.)
- Puppet animal preference (Incorrect. The animal representing each type of puppet condition was a constant in the experiment, so this was not a determining factor.)
- Just World Belief (Correct! The idea that good things should happen to good people and the converse, is the “just world belief,” and researchers suggested that 8-month olds may have the capacity for a belief in justice or revenge.)
A: Just World Belief

Q: Using inferences from the puppet experiments about in-group and out-group preferences can we make about how infants as young as 8 months old choose playmates and friends?
- Infants like everyone, regardless of their preferences (Incorrect. This is not to say infants express disdain or hatred of others, but this study shows a preference for others who like similar things they like.)
- Infants make friend choices based solely on who is nice to them (Incorrect. Certainly, infants like people who are nice to them, but they also like people who have some similar interests, as the research revealed.)
- Infants like people who can help them obtain things they want (Incorrect. Infants do not use people as instrumental to getting things they want as a method of friendship, at this age. They tend to prefer those they view as similar to them in some aspect, such as preference.)
- Infants like others who express similar likes and dislikes (Correct! Infants chose the puppets who expressed the same food preference as they did; when applied to people, they may make similar decisions, preferring those others who like similar things they do.)
A: Infants like others who express similar likes and dislikes

Q: Jana, a 15-month old child, looks at herself in a mirror. Without her knowledge, an adult applies a dot of lipstick to Jana’s nose. If Jana tries to rub the lipstick off her own nose in this test, what developmental milestone has Jana reached?
- Embarrassment (Incorrect. Embarrassment requires understanding others’ points of view, which occurs at a later stage in development.)
- Reflexive behavior (Incorrect. The mirror test determines whether the infant will try to wipe the lipstick off the mirror, indicating a lack of self-awareness, or off herself, indicating self-awareness.)
- Theory of mind (Incorrect. Theory of mind is the ability to take another person’s perspective, while the mirror test in this scenario tests an infant’s self-awareness.)
- Self-awareness (Correct! The rogue test, described here, tests whether a child is aware the reflection in the mirror is not a different person, but him or herself.)
A: Self-awareness

Q: Eight-month-old Howard meets his great-aunt for the first time. He clings to his mother, uncertain of this new person. What does Howard exhibit?
- Self-awareness (Incorrect. A child clinging to his mother is not a demonstration of self-awareness.)
- Insecure-avoidant attachment (Incorrect. In an insecure-avoidant attachment, the child is disengaged. If this applied to Howard, he would likely avoid both his mother and his great-aunt.)
- Insecure-resistant attachment (Incorrect. Although clinging behavior could indicate an insecure-resistant attachment, in this scenario, Howard is introduced to a stranger and shows appropriate wariness, seeking comfort from his mother.)
- Stranger wariness (Correct! The great-aunt is a stranger to Howard, because he hasn’t met her before, and clinging to his mother shows he is wary of the new person and attached to his mother.)
A: Stranger wariness

Q: 8-month-old Marvin cries when his father drops him off at daycare every day, even though they do this every day. What does Marvin display?
- Stranger wariness (Incorrect. Stranger wariness doesn’t appear to be the case here, because Marvin is being dropped off at a familiar location with familiar people. Being separated from his father is the upsetting factor.)
- Withdrawal (Incorrect. If Marvin emotionally withdrew, he might not cry, and he may not engage with others in play. Instead, he appears to be experiencing separation anxiety at his dad’s departure.)
- Insecure-avoidant attachment (Incorrect. A child with an insecure-avoidant attachment style would probably disengage with the father and with the daycare providers upon his father’s departure.)
- Separation anxiety (Correct! Marvin is anxious when his father drops him off at daycare. This is normal for a child Marvin’s age, and he will likely settle down soon.)
A: Separation anxiety

Q: In this type of attachment, a child views the parent as a safe base from which to explore the world around themselves.
- Insecure-avoidant (Incorrect. A child with an insecure-avoidant attachment may be independent and disengaged, avoiding contact with the caregiver and with others.)
- Insecure-resistant (Incorrect. A child with an insecure-resistant attachment may cling to the caregiver out of fear of abandonment and the world around them. A child with this type of attachment seeks reassurance that is often absent.)
- Insecure-anxious (Incorrect. This is not one of the standard attachment styles. Insecure attachments are marked by anxiety and insecurity, in general.)
- Secure (Correct! A securely attached child feels free to explore the world and knows the parent is a safe haven.)
A: Secure

Q: Noah doesn’t seem to know what to expect from his mother, so he is fearful, easily upset, and confused. The world does not make a lot of sense to him. What type of attachment does Noah probably have with his mother?
- Secure (Incorrect. While 65% of children are securely attached to their caregivers, this does not appear to be the case with Noah and his mother. Noah cannot predict his mother’s behavior and he may not expect a safe world.)
- Insecure-avoidant (Incorrect. An insecure-avoidant attachment is characterized by insecurity and a tendency to avoid contact with caregivers and others.)
- Insecure- resistant (Incorrect. A child with an insecure-resistant attachment will usually resist being taken away from the caregiver’s presence, often from a fear of abandonment.)
- Disorganized (Correct! Noah’s mother sends him mixed signals, making the world a confusing and unpredictable place. The attachment between this mother-child pair is likely disorganized.)
A: Disorganized

Q: In the strange situation test, baby Randall sits passively and waits until it is time to leave. His behavior is indicative of what type of attachment?
- Disorganized (Incorrect. Randall is avoidant of both the caregiver and the new situation, sitting passively. A disorganized attachment may reflect more confused behavior or unpredictable responses from the caregiver.)
- Insecure-resistant (Incorrect. In an insecure-resistant attachment, Randall would cling to his caretaker out of fear of abandonment.)
- Secure (Incorrect. A securely attached Randall would explore the room of toys, returning to the caregiver for reassurance and comfort, or to show them the toys.)
- Insecure-avoidant (Correct! Randall’s attachment with his caregiver is marked by insecurity. He does not interact with them, nor does he take an interest in the new toys and new surroundings.)
A: Insecure-avoidant

Q: As much as Christophe’s parents try to understand his temperament, even after testing, they cannot determine what his temperament type is. What does this indicate about Christophe?
- Christophe is a feisty child with a difficult temperament. (Incorrect. Because Christophe’s parents and testers have had difficulty categorizing his temperament, he will likely fall into the “undifferentiated” category.)
- Christophe is just slow to warm up (Incorrect. This does not capture Christophe’s temperament, which is difficult to define, or undifferentiated.)
- Christophe would be considered a flexible child. (Incorrect. Christophe’s difficult to categorize temperament would likely disqualify him from a classification as flexible, or easy, but rather, undifferentiated.)
- His temperament would be classified as undifferentiated. (Correct! Children with hard to classify temperaments may be classified as undifferentiated, such as Christophe.)
A: His temperament would be classified as undifferentiated.

Q: Justin is a very active child, and his mother frequently tries to discourage him from venturing around his play area, instead wanting him to sit still and calmly play with blocks. In what way is this parenting style incompatible with Justin’s temperament?
- Justin’s mother is not firm enough in her disciplinary style (Incorrect. Discipline is not the issue here; Justin may be as well-behaved as he can be, but he needs time to be active and use up some energy, so this is an issue of goodness of fit.)
- Justin’s mother is too passive for such an active child (Incorrect. Be careful not to judge a parent’s preferences as a fault in their parenting style; the mother simply has an incompatible style with her rambunctious child and they will need to find a different balance for goodness of fit.)
- This parenting style is just right; it’s the child who needs to learn to change his temperament. (Incorrect. Temperament changes very little over a lifespan, so for goodness of fit between parents and children, some adjustments should be made to bring the two in closer alignment.)
- This parenting style is not currently achieving a good fit for the active child (Correct! Attempting to control a child’s style of play and keep him inactive will likely frustrate both Justin and his mother; this is not a good fit of styles.)
A: This parenting style is not currently achieving a good fit for the active child

Q: Barbara has a toddler, a boy, and another child, a girl, on the way. She’s accustomed to her boy’s fussiness, so she thinks she will be just fine adjusting to her second child’s temperament. What is Barbara failing to take into consideration?
- If one child is a boy and the other is a girl, she is not prepared for gender differences (Incorrect. Temperament and goodness of fit should be Barbara’s main concern, not gendered expectations.)
- Boys’ and girls’ temperaments are inherently different (Incorrect. No two children are the same, no matter what gender they are. The child’s temperament, not the gender, is a factor in goodness of fit.)
- She may have to rearrange her schedule to fit two children’s needs (Incorrect. Barbara is having a second child. She is probably very aware that her schedule will change.)
- Temperament and goodness of fit may differ (Correct! Just because she adjusted well to her son’s fussy temperament, she may not have as easy an adjustment to her daughter’s unknown temperament.)
A: Temperament and goodness of fit may differ

Q: The idea that children are resilient helps compensate for possible missteps or downright failures in caregiving early in life. If a baby is resilient and learns to believe the world is a safe place, which Eriksonian task has the child tackled?
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Incorrect. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second Eriksonian crisis a child encounters. During this stage, the child learns how to explore and take initiative in performing tasks for themselves. If caregivers thwart their efforts or shame the child, the child will instead internalize shame and doubt.)
- Autonomy vs. mistrust (Incorrect. Trust versus mistrust is the first Eriksonian crisis, and autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second crisis.)
- Initiative vs. guilt (Incorrect. Initiative versus guilt is the third Eriksonian crisis, occurring around preschool age, where children begin to take actions that involve others and the world around them in an effort to build self-reliance confidence.)
- Trust vs. mistrust (Correct! Trust versus mistrust is the first crisis in the Eriksonian model, where the child must learn to trust that the world around them is a safe place (or mistrust the world and its intentions).)
A: Trust vs. mistrust

Q: Lucy is an overprotective mother, constantly trying to keep her toddler out of potentially dangerous situations, like playing on the slide at the playground. What message does Lucy’s overprotective tendency send her child, who is trying to establish autonomy?
- Mistrust (Incorrect. Trust versus mistrust is the first Eriksonian stage, which begins in infancy. The child in this stage learns to rely on the parent for comfort and view the world as a safe space. Lucy is providing her child a safe space with her overprotective attention.)
- Guilt (Incorrect. Initiative versus guilt is the third, or preschool-aged stage of Eriksonian psychosocial development. Lucy’s toddler is likely not yet at this stage or conflict.)
- Inferiority (Incorrect. Industry versus inferiority is the crisis school-aged children go through. It involves feeling competent at one’s schoolwork, social interactions, and other social comparisons.)
- Shame and doubt (Correct! The second Eriksonian stage is autonomy versus shame and doubt. If Lucy’s child is not afforded much autonomy, the child may learn shame and doubt instead.)
A: Shame and doubt

Q: Erikson and Freud disagreed on many aspects of child-rearing, including the amount of attention the parent should give a child. According to Freud, overindulging the child would leave the child orally fixated. Erikson, however, believed children would accomplish what task?
- Becoming overly reliant on parental praise (Incorrect. This was a belief Freud espoused; he thought the child would be spoiled and overly reliant on praise and coddling from the parent.)
- Learning how to regulate emotions (Incorrect. Emotional regulation is not addressed in Erikson’s first stage, trust versus mistrust, although part of learning to trust the world involves being able to react appropriately to surroundings, as the child has viewed appropriate models for behavior.)
- Developing a sense of pride and self-esteem (Incorrect. Pride and self-esteem come later in Erikson’s next stage of psychosocial development, autonomy versus shame and doubt, when children explore more of their world.)
- Believing the world is a safe place (Correct! In Erikson’s first stage, trust versus mistrust, the child learns to trust the parent and believe in the world as a safe place.)
A: Believing the world is a safe place